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ENGMSH GRAMMAR 

IN 

FAMIMAR LECTURES, 

ACCOMPANIED BX A 

COMPENDIUM; 

EMBRACING 

A IHBW SYSTEMATICK ORDER OP PARSMCU 

A NEW SYSTEM OF PUNCTUATION, 
EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX, 

AND 

A BySTlim OF FHXXiOSOFHXCAXi GRAOTMEAB 

IN NOTES: 

TO WHICH ARE ADDED 

j&JV JIPPEJYDIX, AJSTB A KEY TO THE EXERCISES 

DESIGNED 

FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS AND PRIVATE LEARNERS* 

* - 

BY SAMUEL KIRKHAM, 



Stereotyped by Wm. Hagar <$» Co., New-York. 
LAST EDITION, ENLARGED AND IMPROVED. 



CINCINNATI. v ' 

PUBLISHED BY MORGAN AND SANXAY. 
1834. 



fx 



(r ■ 



■^•v* 



\ 

Southern District of New-Yo-k, ss* 

BE IT REMEMBERED, that on the 22d day of August, A. D. 1829, 

L. S. in the 54th year of the Independence of the United States of America, 
Samuel Kirkham, of the said District, hath deposited in this office the 
title of a Book, the right whereof he claims as author, in the words following, 
to wit : . 

" English Grammar in familiar lectures, accompanied hy a Compendium ; 
embracing a new systematick order of Parsing, a new system of Punctuation, 
exercises in false Syntax, and a System of Philosophical Grammar m notes : 
to which are added an Appendix, and a Key to the Exercises: designed tor 
the use of Schools and Private Learners. By Samuel Kirkham. Eleventh 
Edition, enlarged and improved. In conformity to the act of congress of 
the United States, entitled "an act for the encouragement of learning, by se- 
curing the conies of maps, charts, and books, to the authors and proprietors 
of such copies, during the time therein mentioned." And also to an act enti- 
tled "an act supplementary to ah act entitled an act for the encouragement 
of learning, by securing the copies of maps, charts, and books, to the au- 
thors and proprietors of such copies, during the times therein mentioned 
and extending the benefits thereof to the arts of designing, engraving, and 

etching historical and other prints." FRED J BETTS 

Clerk of the Southern District of New York. 



THIS WORK IS FOR SALE, 

IN ANY QUANTITIES, 

By Oliver Steele, Albany; William Williams, and Hastings & 

Tracy, Utica; Marshall & Dean, £pchester N. »• and white 

And is al*o sold, wholesale and retail, hy Collins & Hannay, ana vvmte, 

ock, Chmnbersburgh ; J.Loudon, Carlisle, ™ y - nh in —Mr 

Cincinnati- D Hobbs, ChUlicothe ; and Mr. Cox, Zanesvde, Ohio, Mr. 

mine Union. TRANSFER 

28 

WN271S4F 

Serka! Hoard Dtvi»lo» 
Y!m> L'Jbrary at CM^reas 






msCOMIttKNDATION*. 

tl is well known that the recommendations which generally accompany new books, 
have very Utile weight with the publick. This is as it should be; for that work which 
rests more on its written testimonials, than on its intrinsick merits for support, as- 
serts no claims to permanent patronage. But recommendations which analyze the 
merits of a work, and which, by exhibiting its prominent features in a striking light, 
are calculated to carry conviction to the reader that the system recommended is 
meritorious, the author is proud to have it in his power to present in this volume. 
The following aie some of the numerous testimonials which he has received, and for 
which he tenders his grateful acknowledgments to those literary gentlemen to whose 
liberality and politeness he is indebted for them. More than six hundred others 
presented to the author, and many of which are equally flattering with these, he 
has not room to insert. 



The following notice of this work is extracted from the "Western Review." This 
journal is ably conducted by the Rev. Timothy Flint, author of " Francis Reman," 

History & Geography of the Miss. Valley," and many other popular and valuable 
works. 

We had not, at that time, seen Mr. Kirkham's u Grammar in familiar Lectures " 
but have since given it a cursory perusal. If we comprehend the author's design, 
it is not so much to introduce new principles, as to>ender more easy and intelligible 
..hose which have been long established, and to furnish additional facilities to an ac- 
curate and thorough knowledge of our language. In this we think he has been sue . 
cessful. 

It is to be expected that a modest, unassuming writer, on presenting hi. nself be- 
fore the publick tribunal as an author, will, so far as consistent with his plan, avail 
himsel. of the authority of such as have written well on the subject before him. Mr. 
Kirkham has accordingly followed Mr. M .rray in the old beaten track of English 
writers on grammar, in the general principles of the science ; endeavouring, at the 
same time, to avoid whatever appeared to be erroneous or absurd in the writings of 
that author, and adopting an entirely new arrangement. The most useful matter 
contained in the treatise of Mr. Murray, is embraced in this ; but in the definit ns 
S3? & ™ amplified, and rendered much more intelligible. Though our author 
trc^^ 1 ^ 1 mthe gen ^ ral P ri ^iples of his work, he has, in numerous in! 
^^ to be Ms own, and ££ 

better. The noun and verb as Kin^h^m^ * ° SC6 h ° W h f Could have **• 
explained, and afterwards thof e whTcli ^^EOT' PaftS °I Speed }' a ' e firs * 
nate character. By folio win* thlsTd^hnhl ^ ? ! econdai 7 and subordi- 

among authors, of defining the mL™ naVts h!wT , - Cd ^ absurdlt £ so co ™<>a 

application to familar objects? are wdl calcullted tn^ 1 ^ S f h " remarks ' "* *™ 
understanding of the pupil, and Thereby tc "ess en thtwhnul^ ?^ U ^ and aid th » 
pnnciples of the science are simn/i/J ™i the labour of the instructer. Tlie 

few*, we should ihlS : no oXaffmin ftri^H^^T* ° f ""^ 
cult. It is in this particular that the work \™mtn^L P 'f W $ S na them diffi - 

mode g s7ruthor Pl whole 6 Vr^steCe uf that^ ^ ST**? «*>« ™M« and 
Cincinnati, Aug. 24, 182?. ' qUOte from lhe fifth editi ™. 

poses to deliver a course of Lectures on FnMUh '#• '" wh,ch £? r - «• Kirkham V ,o- 
~* ,„ acuinn, a general tSTySO^SS^i'^A SEjfe 



* RECOMMENDATIONS. 

opportunity is now presented which ought not to be neglected. Having myself 
witnessed, in several instances, within the last ten months, the practical results of 
Mr. Kirkham's plan, I am enabled to give a decisive opinion of its merits. The 
extensive knowledge acquired in one course by his class in Pittsburgh, and the great 
proficiency evinced by his classes elsewnere, are a demonstration of the utility and 
superiority of his method of teaching, and a higher encomium on him than I am 
able to bestow. 

The principles on which Mr. Kirkham's "New system of Grammar" is predica- 
ted, are judiciously compiled, and happily and briefly expressed ; but the great 
merit of his work consists in the lucid illustrations accompanying the principles, and 
the simple and gradual manner in which it conducts the learner along from step to 
step through the successive stages of the science. The explanations blended with 
the theory, are addressed to the understanding of the pupil in a manner so familiar, 
that they cannot fail to excite in him a deep interest ; and whatever system is cal- 
culated to bring into requisition the mental powers, must, I conce ; «>. be productive 
of good results. In my humble opinion, the system of teaching introduced into this 
work, will enable a diligent pupil to acquire, without any other aid, a practical 
knowledge of grammar, in less than one-fourth part of the time usually devoted. 

My views of Mr. Kirkhanr s system are thus publickly given, with the greater 
pleasure, on account of the literary empiricisms which haye been so extensively 
practised in many parts of the western country. 

Cincinnati, April 26, 1826. 

From Mr. Blood, Principal of the Chambersburgh Academy, Pa. 

Mr. Kirkham, — It is now almost twenty years since I became a teacher of youth, 
and, during this period, I have not only consulted all, but have used many, of the 
different systems of English grammar that have fallen in my way ; and, sir, I do 
assure you, without the least wish to flatter, that yours far exceeds any I have yet 
s*en. 

* Your arrangement and systematick order of parsing are most excellent ; and ex- 
perience has convinced me, (having used it, and it only, for the last twelve or thir- 
teen months,) that a scholar will learn more of the nature and principles of our 
language in one quarter, from your system, than in a whole year from any other I had 
previously used. I do, therefore, most cheerfully and earnestly recommend it to the 
nublick at large, and especially to those who, anxious to acquire a knowledge of ouf 

language, are destitute of the advantages of an instructer. ^^^ 

B ° ' Yours, very respectfully, SAMUEL BLOOD. 

Chambersburgh Academy, Feb. 12, 1825. 

From Mr. N. R. Smith, editor of a valuable literary journal, styled " The Hesperus." 

Sir, I have' examined your Lectures on English Grammar with ♦ hat degree oi 
minuteness which enables me to yield my unqualified approbation of the work as a 
grammatical system. The engaging manner in which you have explained the ele- 
ments of grammar, and accommodated them to the capacities of youth is an ample 
Mustratkm of the utility of your plan. In addition to this, the critical at enhonyji 
have paid to an analytical developement of grammatical principles, while it is calcu- 
lated to encourage the perseverance of young students m the march of improvement 
b sufficient, also, to employ the researches of the literary connoisseur. I trust that 
your valuable compilation will be speedily introduced into schools and academies. 
With respect, yours, N< R SMITH? A- M . 

Pittsburgh, March 22, 1825. 
From Mr. Jungmann, Principal of the Frederick Lutheran Academy :--Extract. 

Havin- careful^ examined Mr. S. Kirkham's new system of" English Grammar 
in famHar Lectures," I am satisfied that the pre-eminent advantages it possesses 
overW colon systems, will soon convince the pubhek, that it is not one of those 
v^fble effort of quackery which have so often obtruded upon ournotice. Its deci- 
de [^eHoHtyover all Ither systems consists in adapting the J-^™^^ 
capacity of the young learner, and the happy mode adopted of commun catmg it to 
nffmind to a manner so clear' and simple, that he can easily comprehend the nature 
»nd the amplication of every principle that comes betore mm. 

In %M Armtricaciwof the P «nence are elucidated so clearly I am confident, 
that even a private learner, of common docility can, by V^^J^J^^^ 
lively, acquire abetter practical knowledge of this important branch of literature m 
three months, than is ordinarily obtained in one year. flN £ jxjNGMANN. 

Frederick, Md. Sept. 17, 1823. 



RECOMMENDATIONS. 5 

I confer ^^^ ^^fe^SrVl^^^a., a wo* 
Albany, Sept. 25, 1824. DE W1T r CLINTON. 

derstood, even by a <y™ in grammar * **** lan Suage, as to be readily un- 

with which the publiek has ' 'eer i inim3»tilf ?i ♦ numero , us "improved systems" 
improvements on MW^ J* 2 ? °f "^ ^ ™ means 

mar has rendered gr^lSclivi^e^M^i individuals whom a " little gram- 
of investigation. ' y mSane * M * convictions, therefore, are the result 

I wish you, Sir, success in your publication. 

Respectfully, EBER WHEATON, 

With t\*+ rt^ • • r ™ ™ ' of Mech anick's Society School. 

and deserves to be patronized. * "^ ° f CHAR? ^S^tS IVS?" bran <*» 

Brojklyn, July 9, 1829. CHARLES P. McILVAINE. 

We fully concur in the above. A x^^ r™ rT A ^ „ 

ANDREW HAGEMAN 
E - M. JOHNSON? 

From the partial examination which I have iriWii Mr c v~ i u , « 

mar, I do not hesitate to recommend it to the „uh£*« Kirkham's Enplwh Gram- 

ever seen, and as filling up an important Lid afmost inf,?» ^k^ f the - class f h ™* 

£rammatical science. v^mii ana almost impassable chasm in works on 

Brooklyn, L. I. June 29, 1829. D - L - CARROLL. 

We fully concur in the foregoing recommendation. B B HAT LOCK: 

E.KINGSLEY, * 
From A. W. Dodge, Esq. % S * MAYR ON 



that ^rle SS of^^7^^^1^ P ^ * ** T* *™" «4 
committed at all, committed to themTm™^ / ; <r onsid ered as tasks, and ifr 
>ngs; so that many a pupil Y r LhBT^T^rf h ^ h ^ ff thdr un ^rstanj! 
unacquainted with the nature even of tC ^ ? ♦ he En f ,lsh grammar, is totally 
The work of Mr. Kirkham on t" ^.^ s "Mest parts of speech. ' aHy 

and supply a ueficiency wh™h has 17TIX V *?* ^"^ed to remedy these evil, 

simple, familiar, and lucid method of treatin" thi fnK' ^ t ei u own ,an S u age. By a 
before irksome and unprofitable, pleSS s t ubje P ! ' he , has rendered what was 
mar of Mr. Kirkham furnishes * ^b?w&^"& , ln . one w '^> the g^- 
the intricate labvnnth of verh« t,™,«c. ' vmc " the youthful mind s ffuided thrm»ik 
heretofore so difficult and unmv Z"\^o SIT^ ""j ' he » a ' h -hi'h has befn 
their energies in fruitless attempt ^?o ^mmlmT it? \ he *\ d ™ r °<>outh, and waste 
structions by this pi fm€€ r to the youthful m^„i 0b 5 fa V ,es » *f c, « ar ^ of these ob- 
fnendly guide-boards to direct tnl£th • /"^ and Plated, at every turn witk 
Work alluded to, will congee etulV^^'i V? I *W P-»"a7of V h ^ 
lid satisfy every one who is ^^33 hl P ? f flhe '""ft ° f these remark* 
aat ,t will meet the want, *&££&* P^^ccjo ^ndes and fo* „ s ' 



RECOMMENDATIONS. 

Having for several years>en engaged in lecturing S^e&t^Amm; 




..., «.„ w ,.v«,u««ui C in giving mis testimonial ot my cordial approb; 
the work. Mr .Kirkham has attempted to improve upon this branch of science 
chiefly by unfolding and explaining the principles of grammar in a manner so dear 
and simp e, as to adapt them completely to the understanding of the voune learnVr 
and by adopting a new arrangement, which enables the pupil to commit the princi- 
ples by a simultaneous application of them to practical examples. The publick mav 
rest assured, that he has been successful in his attempt in a pre-eminent degree I 
make this assertion under a full conviction that it will be corroborated by every 
candid judge of the science who becomes acquainted with the practical advantages 
of this manual. to 

The explicit brevity and accuracy of the rules and definitions, the novel, the 
striking, the lucid, and critical illustrations accompanying them, the peculiar and 
advantageous arrangement of the various parts of the subject, the facilities proffered 
by the systematick mode of parsing" adopted, the convenient and judicious intro- 
duction and adaptation of the exercises introduced, and the deep researches and 
critical investigations displayed in the "Philosophical Notes," render this system 
of grammar so decidedly superiour to all others extant, that, to receive general pat- 
ronage, it needs but to be known. 

My knowledge of this system from experience in teaching it, and witnessing it* 
effects in the hands of private learners, warrants me in saying, that a learner will, 
by studying this book four months without a teacher, obtain a more clear conception 
of the nature and proper construction of words and phrases, than is ordinarily ob- 
tained in common schools and academies, mjive times four months. 

It is highly gratifying to know, that wherever this system has been circulated, it 
is very rapidly supplanting those works of dulness which have so long paralyzed the 
energies of the youth of our country. 

I think the specimens of verbal criticism, additional corrections in orthography 
and orthoepy, the leading principles of rhetorick, and the improvements in the 
illustrations generally, which Mr. K. is about introducing into his eleventh edi- 
tion, will render it quite an improvement on the former editions of his work. 

H. WINCHESTER. 
From the Rev. S. Center, Pr. of a Classical Academy. 
I have examined the last edition of Kirkham's Grammar with peculiar satisfac- 
tion. The improvements which appear in it, do, in my estimation, give it a decided 
preference to any other system now in use. To point out the peculiar qualities 
which secure to it claims of which no other system can boast, would be, if required, 
perfectly easy. At present it is sufficient to remark, that it imbodies all that is es- 
sentially excellent and useful in other systems ; whilst it is entirely free from that 
tediousness of method and prolixity of defir.ition which so much perplex and em- 
barrass the learner. 

The peculiar excellence of Mr. Kirkham's grammar is, the simplicity of its meth- 
od, and the plainness of its illustrations. Being conducted by familiar lectures, the 
teacher and pupil are necessarily brought into agreeable contact by each lesson. 
Both are improved by the same task, without the slightest suspicion, on the part oi 
the pupil, that there is any thing hard, difficult, or obscure in the subject : a convic- 
tion, this, which must inevitably precede all efforts, or no proficiency will be made. In 
a word, the treatise I am recommending, is a practical one ; and for that reason, it 
there were no others to be urged, it ought to be introduced into all our schools and 
academies. From actual experiment I can attest to the practicability of the plan 
which the author has adopted. Of this fact any one may be convinced who will 
take the pains to make the experiment. SAMUEL CENTER. 

Albany, July 10, 1829. 
From a communication addressed to S. Kirkham by the Rev. J. Stockton, author 
of the " Western Calculator" and " Western Spelling-Book." 
Dear Sir, — I am much pleased with both the plan and execution of your " English 
Grammar in Familiar Lectures." In giving a systematick mode of parsing, cal- 
culated alike to exercise the understanding and memory of the pupil, and also free 
the teacher from the drudgery of continued interrogation, you have made your 
grammar what every elementary school-book ought to be, — plain, systematick, and 
easy to be understood. 

This, with the copious definitions in every part of the work, and other improve- 
ments so iudiciously introduced, gives it a decided superiority over the imperfect 
grammar of Murray, now so generally used. JOSEPH STOCKTON, A. M. 
Allegheny-Town, (near Pittsburgh,) March 18, 1825. 



ADVERTISEMENT 

TO THE ELEVENTH EDITION. 

The author is free to acknowledge, that since this treatise first ventured 
on the wave of publick opinion, the gales of patronage which have wafted it 
along, have been far more favourable than he had reason to anticipate. Had 
any one. on its first appearance, predicted, that the demand for it would call 
forth twenty-two thousand copies during the past year, the author would have 
considered the prediction extravagant and chimerical. In gratitude, therefore, 
to that publick which has smiled so propitiously on his humble efforts to ad- 
vance the cause of learning, he has endeavoured, by unremitting attention to 
the improvement of his work, to render it as useful and as unexceptionable 
as his time and talents would permit. 

It is believed that the tenth and eleventh editions have been greatly im- 
proved ; but the author is apprehensive that his work is not yet as accurate 
and as much simplified as it may be. If, however, the disadvantages of linger- 
ing under a broken constitution, and of being able to devote to this subject 
only a small portion of his time, snatched from the active pursuits of a busi- 
ness life, {active as far as his imperfect health permits him to be,) are any 
apology for its defects, he hopes that the candid will set down the apology to 
his credit. This personal allusion is hazarded with the additional hope, that 
it will ward off some of the arrows of criticism which may be aimed at him t 
and render less pointed and poisonous those that may fall upon him. Not 
that he would beg a truce with the gentlemen criticks and reviewers. An} r 
compromise with them would betray a want of self-confidence and moral 
courage which he would, by no means, be willing to avow. It would, more- 
over, be prejudicial to his interest ; for he is determined, if his life be preserv 
ed, to avail himself of the advantages of any judicious and candid criticisms 
on his production, that may appear, and, two or three years hence, revise his 
work, and present to the publick another and a better edition. 

The improvements in the tenth edition, consisted mainly in the addition 
of many important principles ; in rendering the illustrations more critical, 
extensive, accurate, and lucid ; in connecting more closely with the genius 
and philosophy of our language, the general principles adopted ; and in add- 
ing a brief view of philosophical grammar interspersed in notes. The in- 
troduction into the eleventh edition, of many verbal criticisms, of addi- 
tional corrections in urthography and orthoepy, of the leading principles of 
rbetorick, and of general additions and improvements in various parts of the 
work, render this edition } it is believed, far preferable to any of the former 
editions of the work. 

Perhaps some will regard the philosophical notes as a useless exhibition of 
pedantry. If so, the author's only apology is, that some investigations ot 
this nature seemed to be called for by a portion of the community whose 
minds, of late, appear to be under the influence of a kind of philosophical ma- 
nia; and to such these notes are respectfully submitted for just what they 
may deem their real value. The author's own opinion on this point, is, that 
they proffer no material advantages to common learners ; but that they'may 
profitably engage the attention of the curious, and perhaps impart a degree 
of interest to the literary connoisseur. 
New- York, August 22, 1829. 



CONTENTS. 



Address to the learner 

A, an, one 

Aim! 

Adjectives 

Adverbs 

Agreement of words 

Anomalies 

Articles 

Because 

But, than, as 

Case 

Nominative 

Possessive 

Objective 



PAGE. 

14 

65, 124 

124 

37, 69 

83 

52 

162 

64 

125 

116, 124, 165 

41 

43, 157 

48 

54, 93 



Nominative case indepen- 
dent 38, 129, 164, 177 

Nominative case absolute 130, 177 

Apposition of cases 130,178 

Nominative and objective 

after the verb to be 186 

Active, passive, and neuter 

nominatives 157 
Conjunctions 118 
Conjugation of regular verbs 142 
Derivation (all the philosophi- 
cal notes treat of deri- 
vation) 27, 37, 171 
Etymology 26 
Exercises in false syntax 177 

In punctuation 210 

Figures of speech 222 

Gender 34 

Government 52 

Grammar, general division of 17 

Philosophical 18 

Have 143, 15o 

Idioms 162 

Interjections 126 

It 104 

If 122 

Key to the exercises 225 

Letters, sounds of 21 

Like 75 
Manner of meaning of words 28, 73 

Moods 134 

Signs of 141 

Subjunctive 135, 145, 155 



Nouns 

Gender of 

Person ot^ 

Number of 

Case of 
Orthography 

Rules of 
Parsing 
Participles 
Poetry transposed 
Prepositions 
Pronouns 

Personal 

Compound personal 

Adjective 

Relative 
Pronunciation 
Prosody 
Provincialisms 
Punctuation 
Rhetorick 
Rules of syntax 



PAGE. 
30 

34 

37 

39 

41, 54, 128 

19, 199 

23 

49 

78 

166 

91 

95 

97 

100 

105 

108 

201 

208 

205 

209 

219 

175 



Sentences, definitions of 

simple and compound 119 

Transposition of 124, 166 
Standard of grammatical 

accuracy 17, 75 

Syntax 26 

To 51 

Tenses 138, 193 

Signs of the 141 

The 64, 65 

That 65, 110 

Terminations 20, 37, 49, 78, 136 

Verbs 42, 47 

Active-transitive 54, 5G 

Active-intransitive 55 

Passive 157 

Neuter 43 

Defective 59 

Auxiliary 140, 153 

Regular 143 

Irregular 148 

Compound 95, 187 

Versification 213 

Worth 75, 163 

What, which, who 109, 111, 114 

You 90 






PREFACE. 



There appears to be something assuming in the act of writing, and thrust 
inginto publick notice, a new work on a subject which has already employed 
many able pens ; for who would presume to do this, unless he believed his pro- 
duction to be, in some respects, superiour to every one of the kind which 
had preceded it? Hence, in presenting to the publick this system of Eng- 
lish Grammar, the author is aware that an apology will be looked for, and 
that the arguments on which that apology is grounded, must inevitably 
undergo a rigid scrutiny. Apprehensive, however, that no explanatory 
effort, on his part, would shield him from the imputation of arrogance by 
such as are blinded by self-interest, or by those who are wedded to the 
doctrines and opinions of his predecessors, with them he will not attempt a 
compromise, being, in a great measure, indifferent either to their praise or 
their censure. But with the candid, he is willing to negotiate an amicable 
treaty, knowing that they are always ready to enter into it on honourable 
terms. In this negotiation he asks nothing more than merely to rest the 
merits of his work on its practical utility, believing that, if it prove un 
commonly successful in facilitating the progress of youth in the march of 
mental improvement, that will be its best apology. 

When we bring into consideration the numerous productions of those 
learned philologists who have labou/ed so long, and, as many suppose, so 
successfully, in establishing the principles of our language ; and, more 
especially, when we view the labours of some of our r.:odern compilers, 
who have displayed so much ingenuity and acuteness in attempting to ar- 
range those principles in such a manner as to form a correct and an easy 
medium of mental conference j it does, indeed, appear a little like presumption 
for a young man to enter upon a subject which has so frequently engaged 
the attention and talents of men distinguished for their erudition. The 
author ventures forward, however, under the conviction, that most of his 
predecessors are very deficient, at least, in manner, if not in matter; and 
this conviction, he believes, will be corroborated by a majority of the best 
judges in community. It is admitted, that many valuable improve- 
ments have been made by some of our late writers, who have endeavoured 
to simplify and render this subject intelligible to the young learner, but 
they have all overlooked what the author considers a very important ob- 
ject, namely, a systematise order of parsing; and nearly all have neglected 
to develope and explain the principles in such a manner as to enable the 
learner, without great difficulty, to comprehend their nature and use. 

By some this system will, no doubt, be discarded on account of its simpli- 
city ; whilst to others its simplicity will prove its principal recommendation. 
Its design is an humble one. It proffers no great advantages to the recondite 
grammarian ; it professes not to instruct the literary connoisseur ; it presents 
no attractive graces of style to charm, no daring flights to astonish, no deep 
researches to gratify him ; but in the humblest simplicity of diction, it at- 
tempts to accelerate the march of the juvenile mind in its advances in the 
path of science, by dispersing those clouds that so often bewilder it, and re- 
moving those obstacles that generally retard its progress. In this way it en- 
deavours to render interesting and delightful a study which has hitherto been 
considered tedious, dry, and irksome. Its leading object is to adopt a 
correct and an easy method, in which pleasure is blended with the labours of 
the learner, and which is calculated to excite in him a spirit of inquiry, that 
shall call forth into vigorous and useful exercise, every latent energy of his 
mind ; and thus enable him soon to become thoroughly acquainted with the 
nature of the principles, and with their practical utility and application. 

Content to be useful, instead of being brilliant, the writer of these pages 
has endeavoured to shun the path of those whose aim appears to have been 



10 PREFACE. 

to dazzle, rather than to instruct. As he has aimed not so much at origi- 
nality as utility, he has adopted the thoughts of" his predecessors whose 
labours have become publick stock, whenever he could not, in his opinion, 
furnish better and brighter of his own. Aware that there is, in the publick 
mind, a strong predilection for the doctrines contained in Mr. Murray's 
grammar, he has thought proper, not merely from motives of policy, but 
from choice, to select his principles chiefly from that work ; and, moreover, 
to adopt, as far as consistent with his own views, the language of that emi- 
nent philologist. In no instance has he varied from him, unless he conceived 
that, in so doing, some practical advantage would be gained. He hopes, 
therefore, to escape the censure so frequently and so justly awarded to 
those unfortunate innovators who have not scrupled to alter, mutilate, 
and torture the text of that able writer, merely to gratify as itching propen- 
sity to figure in the world as authors, and gain an ephemeral popularity by 
arrogating to themselves the credit due to another. 

The author is not disposed, however, to disclaim all pretensions to origi- 
nality ; for, although his principles are chiefly selected, (and who would 
presume to make new ones?) the manner of arranging, illustrating, and 
applying them, is principally his own. Let no one, therefore, if he hap- 
pen to find in other works, ideas and illustrations similar to some con- 
tained in the following* lectures, too hastily accuse him of plagiarism. It is 
well known that similar investigations and pursuits often elicit correspond- 
ing ideas in different minds : and hence it is not uncommon for the same 
thought to be strictly original with many writers. The author is not here at- 
tempting to manufacture a garment to shield him from rebuke, should he 
unjustly claim the property of another; but he wishes it to be understood, 
that a long course of teaching and investigation, has often produced in his 
mind ideas and arguments on the subjectbf grammar, exactly or nearly 
corresponding with those which he afterwards found, had, under similar 
circumstances, been produced in the minds of others. He hopes, therefore, 
to be pardoned by the critick, even though he should not be willing to 
reject a good idea of his own, merely because some one else has, at some 
time or other, been blessed with the same thought. 

As the plan of this treatise is far more comprehensive than those of ordi- 
nary grammars, the writer could not, without making his work unrea- 
sonably voluminous, treat some topicks as extensively as was desirable. 
Its design is to embrace, not only all the most important principles of the 
science, but also exercises in parsing, false syntax, and punctuation, suffi- 
ciently extensive for all ordinary, practical purposes, and a key to the ex- 
ercises, and, moreover, a series of illustrations so full and intelligible, as com- 
pletely to adapt the principles to the capacities of common learners. Whether this 
design has been successfully or unsuccessfully executed, is left for the publick 
to decide. The general adoption of the work into schools, wherever it has 
become known, and the ready sale of forty thousand copies, (though wUhout 
hitherto affording the author any pecuniary profit,) are favourable omens. 

In the selection and arrangement of principles for his work, the author 
nas endeavoured to pursue a course between the extremes, of taking blindly 
on trust whatever has been sanctioned by prejudice and the authority of 
venerable names, and of that arrogant, innovating spirit, which sets at de- 
fiance all authority, and attempts to overthrow all former systems, ana con- 
vince the world that all true knowledge and science are wrapped up m a 
crude system of vagaries of its own invention. Notwithstanding the authoi 
is aware that publick prejudice is powerful, and that he who ventures 
much by way of innovation, will be liable to defeat his own purpose oy fall- 
ing into neglect ; yet he has taken the liberty to think for himself, to inves- 
tigate the subject critically and dispassionately, and to adopt such pnnciples 
only as he deemed the least objectionable, and best calculated to effect the 
object he had in view. But what his system claims as improvements on 



HINTS TO TEACHERS. 11 

others, consists not so much in bettering the principles themselves, as in 
the method adopted of communicating a knoxcledge of them to the mind of the 
learner. That the work is defective, the author is fully sensible : and he is 
free to acknowledge, that its defects arise, in part, from his own want of 
judgment and skill. But there is another and a more serious cause of 
them, namely, the anomalies and imperfections with which the language 
abounds. This latter circumstance is also the cause of the existence of so 
widely different opinions on many important points ; and, moreover, the reason 
that the grammatical principles of our language can never be indisputably 
settled. But principles ought not to be rejected because they admit of ex- 
ceptions. — He who is thoroughly acquainted with the genius and structure 
of our language, can duly appreciate the truth of these remarks. 

To conform, in our orthography and orthoepy, to some admitted stand- 
ard, the author deems a consideration of sufficient importance to justify him 
in introducing into his work an article on each of these subjects, in which 
many words that are often mist polled or mispronounced, are corrected ac- 
cording to a work,* which, in his estimation, justly claims a decisive prefer- 
ence, in point of accuracy, to any other Dictionary of the English language 

* + * Should parents object to the Compendium, fearing it will soon bo 
destroyed by their children, they are informed that the pupil will not have 
occasion to use it one-tenth part as much as he will the book which it ac- 
companies : and besides, if it be destroyed, he will find all the definitions 
and rules which it contains, recapitulated in the series of Lectures, 

HINTS TO TEACHERS AND PRIVATE LEARNERS. 

As this work proposes a new mode of parsing, and pursues an arrange- 
ment essentiailv different from that generally adopted, it may not be deen.ed 
improper for the author to give some directions to those who may br. dis- 
posed to use it. Perhaps they who take only a slight view of the order of 
parsing, will not consider it new, but blend it with those long since adopted. 
Some writers have, indeed, attempted plans somewhat similar ; but in 
no instance have they reduced them to what the author considers a regidar 
systematick order. 

The methods which they have generally suggested, require the teacher to 
interrogate the pupil as he proceeds ; or else he is permitted to parse without 
giving any explanations at all. Others hint that the learner ought to apply 
definitions in a general way, but they lay down no systematick arrangement 
of questions as his guide. The systematick order laid down in this work, if 
pursued by the pupil, compels him to apply every definition and every rule 
that appertains to each word he parses, without having a question put to 
him by^ the teacher -, and, in so doing, he explains every word fully as he 
goes along. This course enables the learner to proceed independently; 
and proves, at the same time, a great relief to the instructer. The conve- 
nience and advantage of this method, are far greater than can be easily 
conceived by one who is unacquainted with it." The author is, therefore 
anxious to have the absurd practice, wherever it has been established of 
causing learners to commit and recite definitions and rules without any si- 
multaneous application of them to practical examples, immediately abol- 
ished. This system obviates the necessity of pursuing such a stupid course 
of drudgery; for the young beginner who pursues it, will have, in a few 
weeks, all the most important definitions and rules perfectly committed 
simply by applying them in parsing. 

If this plan be once adopted, it is confidently believed that every teacher 
who is desirous to consult, either his own convenience, or the advantage of 
his pupils, will readily pursue it in preference to any former method. This 

* The woik alluded to is "Walker's Dictionary," revised and corrected by Mr. 
JLymuit Cobb. * 



12 HINTS TO TEACHERS. 

belief is founded on the advantages which the author himself has expe- 
rienced from it in the course of several years, devoted to the instruction 
of youth and adults. By pursuing this system, he can, with less labour, 
advance a pupil farther in a practical knowledge of this abstruse science, in 
two months, than he could in one year when he taught in the " old way." It 
is presumed that no instructor, who once gives this system a fair trial, will 
doubt the truth of this assertion. 

Perhaps some will, on a first view of the work, disapprove of the trans- 
position of many parts ; but whoever examines it attentively, will find that, 
although the author has not followed the common " artificial and unnatural 
arrangement adopted by most of his predecessors," yet he has endea- 
voured to pursue a more judicious one, namely, "the order. of the under- 
standing." 

The learner should commence, not by committing and rehearsing, but by 
reading attentively the first two lectures several times over. He ought 
then to parse, according to the systematick order, the examples given for 
that purpose ; in doing which, as previously stated, he has an opportunity 
of committing all the definitions and rules belonging to the parts oi speecn 
included in the examples. 

The Compendium, as it presents to the eye of the learner a condensed 
but comprehensive view of the whole science, may be properly considered 
an " Ocular Analysis of the English language." By referring to it, the 
young student is enabled to apply all his definitions and rules from the very 
commencement ol nis parsing. To some, this mode of procedure may seem 
rather tedious; but it must appear obvious to every person of discernment, 
that a pupil will learn more by parsing Jive words critically, and explaining 
them fully, than he would by parsing fifty words superficially, and without 
understanding their various properties. The teacher who pursues this 
plan, is not under the necessity of hearing his pupils recite a single lesson 
of definitions committed to memory, for he has a fair opportunity of discover- 
ing their knowledge of these as they evince it in parsing. All other direc- 
tions necessary for the learner in school, as well as for the private learner, 
will be given in the succeeding pages of the work. Should these feeble ef- 
forts prove a saving of much time and expense to those young persons who 
may be disposed to pursue this science with avidity, by enabling them eas- 
ily to acquire a critical knowledge of a branch of education so important 
and desirable, the author's fondest anticipations will be fully realized; but 
should his work fall into the hands of any who are expecting, by the acqui- 
sition, to become grammarians, and yet, have not sufficient ambition and 
perseverance to make themselves acquainted with its contents, it is hoped, 
that the blame for their nonimprovement, will not be thrown upon him. 

To those enterprising and intelligent gentlemen who may be disposed to lecture on 
this plan, the author takes the liberty to offer a few hints by way of encourage- 

Any judicious instructer of grammar, if he take the trouble to make himself fa- 
miliar with the contents of the following pages, will find it an easy matter to pursue 
this system. One remark only to the lecturer, is sufficient. Instead of causing his 
pupils to acquire a knowledge of the nature and use of the principles by intense ap- 
plication, let him communicate it verbally ; that is, let him first take up one part of 
soeech, and, in an oral lecture, unfold and explain all its properties, not only by 
adopting the illustrations given in the book, but also by giving others that may occur 
to his mind as he proceeds. After a part of speech has been thus elucidated, the class 
should be interrogated on it, and then taught to parse it, and correct errours m com- 
position under the rules that apply to it. In the same manner he may proceed with 
the otliei parts of speech, observing, however, to recapitulate occasionally, until the 
learners become thoroughly acquainted with whatever principles may have been 
presented. If this plan be faithfully pursued, rapid progress, on tht^ part ot the 
learner, will be the inevitable result ; and that teacher who pursues it, cannot tail ot 
nc.miring distinction, and an enviable popularity in his profession. KIRKHAM 



FAMILIAR LECTURES 

ON 

ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



LECTURE I. 

DIVISIONS OF GRAMMAR.— ORTHOGRAPHY. 

TO THE YOUNG LEARNER. 

YOU are about to enter upon one of the most useful, and, 
when rightly pursued, one of the most interesting studies in the 
whole circle of science. If, however, you, like many a mis- 
guided youth, are under the impression that the study of gram- 
mar is dry and irksome, and a matter of little consequence, I 
trust I shall succeed in removing from your mind, all such false 
notions and ungrounded prejudices ; for I will endeavour to 
convince you, before I close these lectures, that this is not only 
a pleasing study, but one of real and substantial utility ; a study 
that directly tends to adorn and dignify human nature, and me- 
liorate the condition of man. Grammar is a leading branch of 
I hat learning which alone is capable of unfolding and maturing 
the mental powers, and of elevating man to his proper rank in 
the scale of intellectual existence ; — of that learning which lifts 
the soul from earth, and enables it to hold converse with a thou- 
sand worlds. In pursuing any and every other path of science, 
you will discover the truth of these remarks, and feel its force ; 
for you will find, that, as grammar opens the door to every de- 
partment of learning, a knowledge of it is indispensable : and 
should you not aspire at distinction in the republick of letters, 
this knowledge cannot fail of being serviceable to you, even if 
you are destined to pass through the humblest walks of life. I 
think it is clear, that, in one point of view, grammatical know- 
ledge possesses a decided advantage over every other branch of 
learning. Penmanship, arithmetick, geography, astronomy, 
botany, chymistry, and so on, are highly useful in their respec- 
tive places ; but not one of them is so universally applicable 
to practical purposes, as this. In every situation, under all cir - 

2 



14 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

cumstances, on all occasions ; — when you speak, read, write, 
or think, a knowledge of grammar is of essentia! utility. 

Doubtless you have heard some persons assert, that they 
could detect and correct any errour in language by the ear, and 
speak and write accurately without a knowledge of grammar. 
Now your own observation will soon convince you, that this as- 
sertion is incorrect. A man of refined taste, may, by perusing 
good authors, and conversing with the learned, acquire that 
knowledge of language which will enable him to avoid those 
glaring errours that offend the ear ; but there are other errours 
equally gross, which have not a harsh sound, and, consequent- 
ly, which cannot be detected without a knowledge of the rules 
that are violated. Believe me, therefore, when I say, that with- 
out the knowledge and application of grammar rules, it is im- 
possible for any one to think, speak, read, or write with accura- 
cy. From a want of such knowledge, many often express 
their ideas in a manner so improper and obscure as to render it 
impossible for any one to understand them : their language fre- 
quently amounts, not only to bad sense, but non-sense. In 
other instances several different meanings may be affixed to the 
words they employ ; and what is still worse, is, that not unfre- 
quently their sentences are so constructed, as to convey a 
meaning quite the reverse of that which they intended. No- 
thing of a secular nature can be more worthy of your attention, 
then, than the acquisition of grammatical knowledge. 

The path which leads to grammatical excellence, is not all 
the way smooth and flowery, but in it you will find some thorns 
interspersed, and some obstacles to be surmounted ; or, in sim- 
ple language, you will find, in the pursuit of this science, many 
intricacies which it is rather difficult for the juvenile mind com- 
pletely to unravel. I shall, therefore, as I proceed, address you 
in plain language, and endeavour to illustrate every principle in 
a mariner so clear and simple, that you will be able, if you exer- 
cise ijourmind, to understand its nature, and apply it to prac- 
tice as you go along ; for I would rather give you one useful 
idea, than fifty high-sounding words, the meaning of which you 
would probably be unable to comprehend. 

Should you ever have any doubts concerning the meaning of 
a word, o/the sense of a sentence, you must not be discoura- 
ged, but persevere, either by studying my explanations, or by 
asking some person competent to inform you, till you obtain a 
clear conception of it, and till all doubts are removed. By care- 
fully examining, and frequently reviewing, the following lectures, 
you will soon be able to discern the grammatical construction 
of our language, and fix in your mind the principles by which 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 15 

it is governed. Nothing delights youth so much, as a clear 
and distinct knowledge of any branch of science which they 
are pursuing ; and, on the other hand, I know they are apt to 
be discouraged with any branch of learning which requires 
much time and attention to be understood. It is the evidence 
of a weak mind, however, to be discouraged by the obstacles 
with which the young learner must expect to meet ; and the 
best means that you can adopt, in order to enable you to over- 
come the difficulties that arise in the incipient stage of your 
studies, is to cultivate the habit of thinking methodically and 
soundly on all subjects of importance which may engage your 
attention. Nothing will be more effectual in enabling you to 
think, as well as to speak and write, correctly, than the study 
of English grammar, according to the method of pursuing it as 
prescribed in the following pages. This system is designed, 
and, I trust, well calculated, to expand and strengthen the in- 
tellectual faculties, in as much as it involves a process by which 
the mind is addressed, and a knowledge of grammar commu- 
nicated in an interesting and familiar manner. 

You are aware, my young friend, that you live in an age of 
light and knowledge ; — an age in which science and the arts 
are marching onward with gigantick strides. You live, too, in a 
land of liberty ; — a land on which the smiles of Heaven beam 
with uncommon refulgence. The trump of the warriour and 
the clangour of arms no longer echo on our mountains, or in 
our valleys ; " the garments died in blood have passed away ;" 
the mighty struggle for independence is over ; and you live to 
enjoy the rich boon of freedom and prosperity which was pur- 
chased wifh the blood of our fathers. These considerations 
forbid that you should ever be so unmindful of your duty to 
your country, to your Creator, to yourself, and to succeeding 
generations, as to be content to grovel in ignorance. Re- 
member that " knowledge is power ;" that an enlightened and 
a virtuous people can never be enslaved ; and that, on the in- 
telligence of our youth, rest the future liberty, the prosperity, 
the happiness, the grandeur, and the glory of our beloved 
country. Go on, then, with a laudable ambition, and an un- 
yielding perseverance, in the path which leads to honour and 
renown. Press forward. Go, and gather laurels on the hill 
of science ; linger among her unfading beauties ; " drink 
deep" of her crystal fountain ; and then join in " the march of 
fame." Become learned and virtuous, and you will be great. 
Love God and serve him, and you will be happji 



16 LANGUAGE, 



LANGUAGE. 



Language, in its most extensive sense, implies those signs 
by which men and brutes communicate to each other their 
thoughts, affections, and desires. 

Language may be divided, 1. kito natural and artificial ; 
2. into spoken and written. 

Natural Language consists in the use of those natural 
signs which different animals employ in communicating their 
feelings one to another. The meaning of these signs all per- 
fectly understand by the principles of their nature. This lan- 
guage is common both to man and brute. The elements oi 
natural language in man, may be reduced to three kinds ; mo- 
dulations of the voice, gestures, and features. By means ot 
these, two savages who have no common, artificial language, 
can communicate their thoughts in a manner quite intelligible : 
they can ask and refuse, affirm and deny, threaten and suppli- 
cate ; they can traffick, enter into contracts, and plight their 
faith. The language of brutes consists in the use of thos© 
inarticulate sounds by which they express their thoughts and 
affections. Thus, the chirping of a bird, the bleating of a 
lamb, the neighing of a horse, and the growling, whining, 
and barking of a dog, are the language of those animals, re 
spectively. 

Artificial Language consists in the use of words, b} 
means of which mankind are enabled to communicate then 
thoughts to one another. — In order to assist you in compre 
hendin<r what is meant by the term word, I will endeavour to 
illustrate the meaning of the term 

* Idea. The notices which we gain by sensation and percep- 
tion, and which are treasured up in the mind to be the materi- 
als of thinking and knowledge, are denominated ideas. For 
example, when you place your hand upon a piece of ice, a sen- 
sation is excited which we call coldness. That faculty which 
notices this sensation or change produced in the mind, is called 
perception; and the abstract notice itself, or notion you form of 
this sensation, is denominated an idea. This being premised, 
we will now proceed to the consideration of words. 

Words are articulate sounds, used by common consent, not 
as natural, but as artificial, signs of our ideas. Words have 
no meaning in themselves. They are merely the artificial re- 
presentatives of those ideas affixed to them by compact or 
agreement among those who use them. In English, for in- 
stance, to a particular kind of metal we assign the name gold ; 
not because there is, in that sound, any peculiar aptness which 



GRAMMAR. 



17 



suggests the idea we wish to convey, but the application of that 
sound to the idea signified, is an act altogether arbitrary. 
Were there any natural connexion between the sound and the 
thino- signified, the word gold would convey the same idea to 
the people of other countries as it does to ourselves. ^ But 
such is not the fact. Other nations make use of different 
sounds to signify the same thing. Thus, aurum denotes the 
same idea in Latin, and or in French. Hence it follows, that 
it is by custom only we learn to annex particular ideas to par- 
ticular sounds. 

Spoken Language or speech is made up of articulate 
sounds uttered by the human voice. 

The voice is formed by air which, after it passes through the 
glottis, (a small aperture in the upper part of the wind-pipe,) 
is modulated by the action of the throat, palate, teeth, tongue, 
lips, and nostrils. 

Written Language. The elements of written language 
consist of letters or characters, which, by common consent and 
general usage, are combined into words, and thus made the 
ocular representatives of the articulate sounds uttered by the 
voice. 



GRAMMAR. 

GRAMMAR, is the science of language. 

Grammar may be divided into two species, universal and 
particular. 

Universal Grammar explains the principles which are 
common to all languages. 

Particular Grammar applies those general principles to 
a particular language, modifying them according to its genius, 
and the established practice of the best speakers and writers 
by whom it is used. Hence, 

The established practice of the best speakers and writers of 
any language, is the standard of grammatical accuracy in the 
use of that language. 

By the phrase, established practice, is implied reputable, na- 
tional, and present usage. A usage becomes good and legal, 
when it has been long and generally adopted. 

The best speakers and writers, or such as may be considered 
good authority in the use of language, are those who are de- 
servedly in high estimation : speakers, distinguished for their 

2* 



18 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

elocution and other literary attainments, and writers, eminent 
for correct taste, solid matter, and refined mai ner. 

In the grammar of a perfect language, no rules should be admitted, but 
such as are founded on fixed principles, arising out of the genius of that 
language and the nature of things ; but our language being im-perfect, it 
becomes necessary, in a practical treatise, like this, to adopt some rules to 
direct us in the use of speech as regulated by custom. If we had a perma- 
nent and surer standard than capricious custom to regulate us in the trans- 
mission of thought, great inconvenience would be avoided. They, how- 
ever, who introduce usages which depart from the analogy and philosophy 
of a language, are conspicuous among the number of those who form that 
language, and have power to control it. 

Language is conventional, and not only invented, but, in its progressive 
advancement, varied for purposes of practical convenience. Hence it as- 
sumes any and every form which those who make use of it choose to 
give it. We are, therefore, as rational and practical grammarians, compelled 
to submit to the necessity of the case ; to take the language as it is, and 
not as it should be, and bow to custom. 

Philosophical Grammar investigates and develops the 
principles of language, as founded in the nature of things and 
the original laws of thought. It also discusses the grounds of 
the classification of words, and explains those procedures 
which practical grammar lays down for our observance. 

Practical Grammar adopts the most convenient classifi- 
cation of the words of a language, lays down a system of de- 
finitions and rules, founded on scientifick principles and good 
usage, illustrates their nature and design, and enforces their 
application. 

Principle. A principle in grammar is a peculiar construc- 
tion of the language, sanctioned by good usage. 

Definition. A definition in grammar is a principle of lan- 
guage expressed in a definite form. 

Rule. A rule describes the peculiar construction or cir- 
cumstantial relation of words, which custom has established 
for our observance. 



EXGLISH GRAMMAR. 

English Grammar is the art of speaking and 
writing the English language with propriety. 

Grammar teaches us how to use words in a proper manner. 
The most important use of that faculty called speech, is, to 
convey our thoughts to others. If, therefore, we have a store 
of words, and even know what they signify, they will be of no 
real use to us unless we can also apply them to practice, and 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 19 

make them answer the purposes for which they were invented. 
Grammar, well understood, enables us to express our thoughts 
fully and clearly ; and, consequently, in a manner which will 
defy the ingenuity of man to give our words? any other meaning 
than that which we ourselves intend them to express. To be 
able to speak and write our vernacular tongue with accuracy 
and elegance, is, certainly, a consideration of the highest mo- 
ment. 

Grammar is divided into four parts ; 

1. Orthography, 3. Syntax, 

2. Etymology, 4. Prosody. 
Orthography teaches the nature and powers 

of letters, and the just method of spelling words. 

Orthography means word-making, or spelling. It teaches 
us the different kinds and sounds of letters, how to combine 
them into syllables, and syllables into words. 

As this is one of the first steps in the palh of literature, I 
presume you already understand the nature and use of letters, 
and the just method of spelling words. If you do, it is unne- 
cessary for you to dwell long on this part of grammar, which, 
though very important, is rather dry and uninteresting, for it has 
nothing to do with parsing or analyzing language. And, there- 
fore, if you can spell correctly, you may omit Orthography, and 
commence with Etymology and Syntax. 

Orthography treats, 1st, of Letters, 2ndly, of 
Syllables, and 3dly, of Words. 

1. Letters. A letter is the first principle, or 
least part, of a word. 

The English Alphabet contains twenty- six let- 
ters. 

They are divided into vowels and consonants. 

A vowel is a letter that can be perfectly sound- 
ed by itself. The vowels are a, e y i, 0, w, and 
sometimes iv and y. W and y are consonants 
when they begin a word or syllable ; but in every 
other situation they are vowels. 

A consonant is a letter that cannot be perfectly 
sounded without the help of a vowel ; as, b, d, f, 
l. All letters except the vowels are consonants. 



20 ORTHOGRAPHY. 

Consonants are divided into mutes and semi- 
vowels. 

The mutes cannot be sounded at all without the 
aid of a vowel. They are b, p, t, d, k, and c and 
g hard. 

The semi-vowels have an imperfect sound of 
themselves. They a,ref,l,m,n,r,v, s, z, x, and c 
and g soft. 

Four of the semi-vowels, namely, I, m, n, r, are called liquids, because, 
they readily unite with other consonants, and flow, as it were, into their 
sounds. 

A diphthong is the union of two vowels, pro- 
nounced by a single impulse of the voice ; as oi 
in voice, ou in sound. 

A triphthong is the union of three vowels pro- 
nounced in like manner ; as, eau in beau, ieiv in 
view. 

A proper diphthong has both the vowels sounded; as, ou in ounce. An 
improper diphthong has only one of the vowels sounded ; as, oa in boat. 

II. Syllables. A syllable is a distinct sound, 
uttered by a single impulse of the voice; as, a, 
an, ant. 

A word of one syllable, is termed a Monosyl- 
lable ; a word of two syllables, a Dissyllable ; a 
word of three s}41ables, a Trisyllable ; a word 
of four or more syllables, a Polysyllable. 

III. Words. Words are articulate sounds, 
used by common consent, as signs of our ideas. 

Words are of two sorts, primitive and deriva- 
tive. 

A primitive word is that which cannot be re 
duced to a simpler word in the language ; as, 
man, good. 

A derivative word is that which may be reduced 
to a simpler word; as, manful, goodness. 

There is little or no difference between derivative and compound words. 
The terminations or added syllables, such as ed, es, ess, est, au, aid, eu, ence, 
ent, dom, hooi, hj, ous,ful, ness, and the like, were, originally, distinct and 
separate words, which, by long use, have been contracted, and made to 
coalesce with other words. 



SOUNDS OF THE LETTERS. 21 

OF THE SOUNDS OF THE LETTERS. 

A. — A has four sounds ; the long ; a3 in name, basin ; the broad ; as in 
call, wall; the short ; as in fagot, glass ; and the flat, Italian sound ; as in 
bar, farther. 

The improper diphthong, aa, has the short sound of a in Balaam, Canaan, 
Isaac ; and the long sound of a in Baal, Gaal, Aaron. 

The Latin diphthong, or. has the long sound of e in oznigma, Ccesar, and 
some other words. But many authors reject this useless excrescence of 
antiquity, and write, enigma, Cesar. 

The diphthong, ai, has the long sound of a ; as in pail, sail ; except in 
plaid, said, again, raillery, fountain, Britain, and some others. 

Au is sounded like broad a in taught, like flat a in aunt, like long o in 
hautboy, and like short o in laurel. 

Aw has always the. sound of broad a ; as in bawl, crawL 

Ay has the long sound of a ; as in pay, delay. 

B. — B has only one sound; as in baker, number, chub. 

B is silent when it follows m in the same syllable ; as in lamb, &c. except 
in accumb, rhomb, and succumb. It is also silent before t in the same sylla- 
ble ; as in doubt, debtor, subtle, &c. 

C. — C sounds like k before a, o, u, r, I, t, and at the end of syllables ; as 
in cart, cottage, curious, craft, tract, cloth; victim, flaccid. It has the sound of 
5 before e, i, and y ; as in centre, cigar, mercy, C has the sound of sh when 
followed by a diphthong, and is preceded by the accent, either primary or 
secondary ; as in social, pronunciation, &c. ; and of z in discern, sacrifice, sice, 
suffice. It is mute in arbuscle, czar, czarina, endict, victuals, muscle.. 

Ch is commonly sounded like tsh; as in chiwch, chin; but in words de- 
rived from the ancient languages, it has the sound of k ; as in chymist 
chorus; and likewise in foreign names ; as in Achish, Enoch. In words 
from the French, ch sounds like sh ; as in chaise, chevalier; and also like 
sh when preceded by I or n ; as in milch, bench, clinch, &c. 

Ch in arch, before a vowel, sounds like k ; as in arch-angel, except in 
arched, archery, archer, archenemy ; but before a consonant, it sounds like 
tsh ; as in archbishop. Ch is silent in schedule, schism, yacht, drachm. 

D. — D has one uniform sound ; as in death, bandage. It sounds like aj 
orj when followed by longw preceded by the accent ; as in educate, verdure. 
It also sounds like j in grandeur, soldier. 

The termination, ed, in adjectives and participial adjectives, retains 
its distinct sound ; as, a wicked man, a leam-ed man, bless-ed are the meek ; 
but in verbs the 6 is generally dropped ; as, passed, walked, flashed, aimed, 
relied, &c. which are pronounced, past, walkt, flasht, aimd, rold. 

E. — E has a long sound ; as in scheme, severe ; a short sound ; as in men, 
tent ; and sometimes the sound of flat a; as in sergeant ; and of short i ; 
as in yes, pretty, England, and generally in the unaccented terminations, es, 
et, en. 

F — Fhas one unvaried sound ; as infancy, muffin; except in of, which, 
when uncompounded, is pronounced ov. A wive's portion, a calve's head 
are improper. They should be, wife's portion, calfs head. 

G.- -G has two sounds. It is hard before a, o, u, I, and r, and at tne 
end of a word ; as in gay, go, gun, glory; bag, snug. It is soft before e, i, 
andi/; as in genius, ginger, Egypt. Exceptions; get, gewgaw, gimlet, and 
some others. G is silent before n ; as in gnash. 

H.— H has an articulate sound; as in hat, horse, hull. It is silent after 
r ; as in rhetorick, rhubarb. 

1.—/ has a long sound ; as in fine ; and a short one; as in fin. Before 
r it is often sounded like u short ; as in first, third; and in other words, 
like short e ; as in birth, virtue. In some words it has the sound of long 
?i as in machiiH, profile. 



22 SOUNDS OF THE LETTERS* 

J. — J has the sound of soft g ; except in hallelujah, in which it is pro* 
nounced like y. 

K. — K has the sound of c hard, and is used before e, i, and y, where c 
would be soft ; as kept, skirt, murky. It is silent before n ; as in knife, 
knell, knocker. 

The custom of omitting the k at the end of words where it is preceded 
by c, has introduced into the language the unwarrantable novelty of ending 
a word with an unusual letter, which produces irregularities in formatives; 
for we are obliged to employ the k in frolicking, frolicked, trafficking, traf- 
ficked, mimicking, attacking, &c. though we omit it in frolick, traffick, &c. 

L. — L has always a soft liquid sound ; as in love, billow. It is often 
silent ; as in half, talk, almond. 

M. — M has always the same sound ; as in murmur, monumental; except 
in comptroller, which is pronounced controller. 

N. — JV has two sounds ; the one pure ; as in man, net, noble ; the other 
a compound sound ; as in ankle, banquet, distinct, &c. pronounced angkl, 
bangkwet. JY* final is silent when preceded by?n; as in hymn, autumn. 

0. — O has a long sound; as in note, over ; and a short one ; as in not, 
got. It has the sound of u short ; as in son, attorney, doth, does ; and ge 
nerally in the terminations, op, ot, or, on, om,, ol, od, &.c. 

P. — P has but one uniform sound; as in pin, slipper; except in cup- 
board, clapboard, where it has the sound of b. It is mute in psalm, Ptolemy, 
tempt, empty, corps, raspberry, and receipt. 

Ph has the sound of/ in philosophy, Philip ; and of v in nephew, Stephen. 

Q. — Q, is sounded like k, and is always followed by u pronounced like w?> 
as in quadrant, queen, conquest. 

R. — R has a rough sound ; as in Rome, river, rage ; and a smooth one ; 
as in bard, card, regard. In the unaccented termination re, the r is sound 
ed after the e; asm fibre, centre. 

S. — £ has a flat sound like z; as in besom, nasal ; and, at the beginning 
of words, a sharp, hissing sound ; as in saint, sister, sample. It has the 
sound of sh when preceded by the accent and another s or a liquid, and 
followed by a diphthong or long u ; as in expulsion, censure. S sounds liko 
zh when preceded by the accent and a vowel, and followed by a diphthong 
or long u ; as in brasier, usual. It is mute in isle, corps, demesne, viscount. 

T. — Tis sounded in take, temper. T before te, when the accent precedes, 
and generally before eou, sounds like tsh ; as, nature, virtue, Hghteous, are 
pronounced natshure, virtshue, richeus. Ti before a vowel, preceded by the 
accent, has the sound of sh; as in salvation, negotiation; except in such words 
as tierce, tiara, &c. and unless an s goes before ; as, question ; and excepting 
also derivatives from words ending in ty ; as in mighty, mightier. 

Th, at the beginning, middle, and end of words, is sharp ; as in thick 
panther, breath. Exceptions ; then, booth, worthy, &c. 

U. — IT has three sounds; a long; as in mule, cubick ; a short; as in dull 
custard; and an obtuse sound; as in fidl, bushel. It is pronounced liko 
short e in bury ; and like short i in busy, business. 

V.— V has uniformly the sound of flat/; as in vanity, love. . 

\V.— W, when a consonant, has its sound, which is heard in wo, beware. 

W is silent before r; as in wry, wrap, xcrinkle ; and also in answer, 
sword &c. Before h it is pronounced as if written after the h; as in why, 
when, wh'at;—hwy, hwen, hwat. When heard as a vowel, it takes the 
sound of u ; as in draw, crew, now. 

X.— X has a sharp sound, like ks, when it ends a syllable with the ac- 
cent on it ; as, exit, exercise ; or when it prec edes an accented syllable 
which begins with any consonant except h ; as, excuse, extent ; but when 
the following accented svllable begins with a vowel or h, it ..as, generally, 
a flat sound, like gz ; as"in exert, exhort. X has the sound of z at the be- 
ginning of proper names of Greek original j as in Xanthus, Xenopfim, Acrcc*, 



RULES FOR SPELLING. 23 

Y. — Y, when a consonant, has its proper sound ; as in youth, York, yes, 
new-year. When y is employed as a vowel, it has exactly the sound thati 
would have in the- same situation ; as in rhyme, system, party, pyramid, 

Z. — Z has the sound of flat s ; as in freeze, brazen. 

RULES FOR SPELLING. 

Spelling is the art of expressing a word by 
its proper letters. 

The following rules are deemed important in practice, al- 
though they assist us in spelling only a small portion of the 
words of our language. This useful art is to be chiefly acquir- 
ed by studying the spelling-book and dictionary, and by strict 
attention in reading. 

Rule i. Monosyllables ending in/, I, or s, double the final 
or ending consonant when it is preceded by a. single vowel ; as, 
staff, mill, pass. Exceptions ; of, if, as, is, has, ivas, yes, his, 
this, us, and thus. 

False Orthography for the learner to coned. — Be thou like the gale that 
moves the gras, to those who ask thy aid.— The aged hero comes forth on 
his staf ; his gray hair glitters in the beam. — Shal mortal man be more just 
than God ? Few know the value of health til they lose it, — Our manners 
should be neither gros, nor excessively refined. 

And that is not the lark, whose notes do beat 

Thevaulty heaven so high above our heads: 

I have more care to stay, than wil to go. 

Rule ii. Monosyllables ending in any consonant but/, I, or 
s, never double the final consonant when it is preceded by a sin- 
gle vowel ; as, man, hat. Exceptions ; add, ebb, butt, egg, odd, 
err, inn, bunn, purr, and buzz. 

False Orthography.— None ever went sadd from Fingal.— He rejoiced over 
his sonn. — Clonar lies bleeding on the bedd of death. — Many a trapp is set 
to in snare the feet of youth. 

The weary sunn has made a golden sett, 

And by the bright track of his golden carr, 

Gives token of a goodly day to-morrow. 

Rule hi. Words ending in y, form the plural of nouns, the 
persons of verbs, participial nouns, past participles, comparatives, 
and superlatives, by changing y into i, when the y is preceded 
by a consonant ; as, spy, spies ; I carry, thou carriest, he car- 
ries ; carrier, carried ; happy, happier, happiest. 

The present participle in ing, retains the y that i may not be 
doubled ; as, carry, carrying. 

But when y is preceded by a vowel, in such instances as the 
above, it is not changed into i ; as, boy, boys ; I cloy, he cloys ; 
except in the words lay, paxj, and say; from which are formed 
laid, paid, and said ; and their compounds, unpaid, unsaid, fyc. 



24 ORTHOGRAPHY. 

False Orthography.— Our fancys should be governed by reason.— Thou 
wearyest thyself in vain.— He denyeil himself all sinful pleasures. 
Win straiing souls with modesty and love j 
Cast none away. 
The truly good man is not dismaied by poverty. 

Ere fresh morning streak the east, we must be risen to reform yonder 
allies green. J 

Rule iv. When words ending in y, assume an additional 
syllable beginning with a consonant, the y, if it is preceded by 
a consonant, is commonly changed to i ; as, happy, happily, 
happiness. 

But when y is preceded by a vowel, in such instances, it is 
very rarely changed to*; as, cot/, coyless ; boy, boyish ; boy- 
hood ; joy, joyless, joyful. 

False Orthography. — His mind is uninfluenced by fancyful humours. — The 
vessel was heavyly laden. — When we act against conscience, we become 
the destroiers of our own peace. 

Christiana, mayden of heroick mien ! 

Star of the north! of northern stars the queen! 

Rule v. Monosyllables, and words accented on the last syl 
lable, ending with a single consonant that is preceded by a single 
vowel, double that consonant when they assume another syllable 
that begins with a vowel ; as, wit, witty ; thin, thinnish ; to abet, 
an abetter. 

But if a diphthong precedes, or the accent is not on the last 
syllable, the consonant remains single ; as, to toil, toiling ; to 
*ffer, an offering ; maid, maiden. 

False Orthography. — The business of to-day, should not be defered till to- 
morrow. — That law is annuled. — When we have outstriped our errours, 
<ve have won the race. — By defering our repentance, we accumulate our 
sorrows.— The Christian Lawgiver has prohibitted many things which the 
heathen philosophers allowed. 

At summer eve, when heaven's aerial bow 
Spans with bright arch the glitterring hills below.— 
Thus mourned the hapless man ; a thunderring sound 
Rolled round the shudderring walls and shook the ground. 

Rule vi. Words ending in double I, in taking ness, less, ly, 
or jtd, after them, generally omit one/; as fulness > shitless, fully, 
skilful. 

But words ending in any double letter but I, and taking ness, 
less, ly, ovful, after them, preserve the letter double ; as, harm- 
lessness, carelessness, carelessly, stiffly, successful. 

False Orthography. — A dullness generally precedes a fever. — He is wed to 
dullness. 

The silent stranger stood amazed to see 
Contempt of wealth and willful poverty. 
Restlesness of mind impairs our peace. — The road to the blisful regions, is 
as open to the peasant as to the king. — The arrows of calumny fall harm- 
\es\y at the feet of virtue. 



RULES FOR SPELLING. 25 

Rule vii. Ness, less, ly, or ful, added to words ending in 
silent e, does not cut it off; as, paleness, guileless, closely, peace" 
fid ; except in a few words ; as, duly, truly, awful. 

False Orthography. — Sedatness is becoming. 
All these with ceasless praise his works behold. 
Stars rush : and final ruin fiercly drives 
Her ploughshare o'er creation ! 

Nature made a pause, 

An aweful pause ! prophetick of her end ! 

Rule viii. When words ending in silent e, assume the ter- 
mination, ment, the e should not be cut off; as, abatement, chas- 
tisement. The words judgment, abridgment^ acknowledgment, 
are exceptions to this ruie. 

JWent, like other terminations, changes y into i when the y is 
preceded by a consonant ; as, accompany, accompaniment; mer- 
ry, merriment. 

False Orthography. — A judicious arrangment of studies facilitates improv- 
ment. — Encouragment is greatest when we least need it. 
To shun allurments is not hard, 
To minds resolvM, forwarn'd, and well prepared. 

Rule ix. When words ending in silent e, assumo the termi- 
nation, able or ible, the e should generally be cut off; as, blame, 
blamable ; cure, curable ; sense, sensible. But if c or g soft 
comes before e in the original word, the e is preserved in words 
compounded with able ; as, peace, peaceable ; change, change- 
able. 

False Orthography. — Knowledge is desireable. — Misconduct is inexcuse- 
able. — Our natural defects are not chargable upon us. — We are made to be 
servicable to others as well as to ourselves. 

Rule x. When ing or ish is added to words ending in silent 
c, the e is almost always omitted ; as, place, placing ; lodge, 
lodging; slave, slavish ; prude, prudish. 

False Orthography. — Labour and expense are lost upon a droneish spirit. 

An obligeing and humble disposition, is totally unconnected with a servile 
and cringeing humour. 

Conscience anticipateing time, 
Already rues th' unacted crime. 

One self-approveing hour, whole years outweighs 
Of stupid starers, and of loud huzzas. 

Rule xi. Compound words are generally spelled in the 
same manner as the simple words of which they are compound- 
ed ; as, glasshouse, skylight, thereby, hereafter. Many words 
ending in double /, are exceptions to this rule; as, already, wel- 
fare, wilful, fulfil ; and also the words wherever, chrisCmas, lam- 
mas, Sec. 

False Orthography.— The Jew's pasover was instituted in A. M. 2513.— 
They salute one another by touching their forheads.— That which is some- 
times expedient, is not all ways so. 

3 



26 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 

Then, in the scale of reas'ning life 'tis plain, 
• There must be, som where, such a rank as man. 
Till hymen brought his lov-delighted hour, 
There dwelt no joy in Eden's rosy bower. 

The head reclined, the loosened hair, 

The limbs relaxed, the mournful air : — 

See, he looks up ; a wofull smile 

Lightens his wo- worn cheek awhile. 

You may now answer the following 
QUESTIONS. 
What is language ? — How is language divided ? — What is na- 
tural language ?— What are the elements of natural language 
in man ? — Wherein consists the language of brutes 1 — What is 
artificial language ? — What is an idea ?— What are words ? — - 
What is Grammar ? — What does Universal grammar explain ? — 
Wherein does Particular grammar differ from universal] — What 
is the standard of grammatical accuracy V, — What is Philosophi- 
cal grammar 1 — What is Practical grammar ? — What is a prin- 
ciple of grammar ? — A definition ?— A rule ? — What is English 
grammar ? — Into how many parts is grammar divided ? — What 
does Orthography teach 1 



ETYMOLOGY AJTD SYJVTAX. 

LECTURE II. 

OF NOUNS AND VERBS. 

Etymology treats of the different sorts of words, 
their various modifications, and their derivation. 

Syntax treats of the agreement and govern- 
ment of words, and of their proper arrangement 
in a sentence. 

The word Etymology signifies the origin or pedigree oj 
tvords. 

Stjn, a prefix from the Greek, signifies together. Syn-tax 
means placing together ; or, as applied in grammar, sentence- 
making. 

The rules of syntax, which direct to the proper choice of 
words, and their judicious arrangement in a sentence, and 
thereby enable us to comrect and avoid errours in speech, are 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 27 

chiefly based on principles unfolded and explained by Etymo- 
logy. Etymological knowledge, then, is a prerequisite to the 
study of Syntax ; but, in parsing, under the head of Etymology, 
you are required to apply the rules of Syntax. It becomes ne- 
cessary, therefore, in a practical work of this sort, to treat these 
two parts of grammar in connexion. 

Conducted on scientifcck principles, Etymology would com- 
prehend the exposition of the origin and meaning of words, and, 
in short, their whole history, including their application to things 
in accordance with the laws of nature and of thought, and the 
caprice of those who apply them ; but to follow up the current 
of language to its various sources, and analyze the springs from 
which it flows, would involve a process altogether too arduous 
and extensive for an elementary work. It would lead to the 
study of all those languages from which ours is immediately de- 
rived, and even compel us to trace many words through those 
languages to others more ancient, and so on, until the chain of 
research would bocome, if not endless, at least, too extensive 
to be traced out by one man. I shall, therefore, confine myself 
to the following, limited views of this part of grammar. 

1. Etymology treats of the classification of words. 

2. Etymology explains the accidents or properties peculiar to 
each class or sort of words, and their present modifications. 
By modifications, I mean the changes produced on their end- 
ings, in consequence of their assuming different relations in re- 
spect to one another. These changes, such as fruit, fruits, 
fruit's ; h?, his, him ; write, writesf, writeth, writes, wrote, writ- 
ten, writing-, writer ; a, an ; ample, ampty, and the like, will be 
explained in their appropriate places. 

3. Etymology treats of the derivation of words ; that is, it 
teaches you how one word comes from, or grows out of another. 
For example : from the word speak, come the wordy speakesf, 
speakef/i, speaks, speaking*, spoke, spoken, speaker, speaker's, 
speakers. These, you perceive, are all one and the game 
word; and all,except the last three, express the same kind of 
action. They differ from each other only in the termination. 
These changes in termination are produced on the word in or- 
der to make it correspond with the various persons who speak, 
the number of persons, or the time of speaking ; as, J speak' 
thou speakesJ, the man spezketh or speaks, the men speak, / 
spoke ; The speaker speaks another speaker's speech. 

The third part of Etymology, which is intimately connected 
with the second, will be more amply expanded in Lecture XIV 
and in the Philosophical notes ; but I shall not treat largely oi 
that branch of derivation which consists in tracing words to 



38 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 

foreign languages. This is the province of the lexicographer, 
rather than of the philologist. It is not the business of him 
who writes a practical, English grammar, to trace words to the 
Saxon, nor to the Celtick, the Greek, the Dutch, the Mexican, 
nor the Persian ; noi is it his province to explain their meaning 
in Latin, French, or Hebrew, Italian, Mohegan, or Sanscrit; 
but it is his duty to explain their properties, their powers, their 
connexions, relations, dependances, and bearings, not at the 
period in which the Danes made an irruption into the island of 
Great Britain, nor in the year in which Lamech paid his ad- 
dresses to Adah and Zillah, but at the particular period in 
which he writes. His words are already derived, formed, es- 
tablished, and furnished to his hand, and he is bound to take 
them and explain them as he finds them in his day, without any 
regard to their ancient construction and application. 

CLASSIFICATION. 

In arranging the parts of speech, I conceive it to be the le- 
gitimate object of the practical grammarian, to consult practi- 
cal convenience. The true principle of classification seems to 
be, not a reference to essential differences in the primitive 
meaning bf words, nor to their original combinations, but to the 
manner in which they are at "resent employed. In the early and 
rude state of society, mankind are quite limited in their know- 
ledge, and having but few ideas to communicate, a small num- 
ber of words answers their purpose in the transmission ol 
thought. This leads them to express their ideas in short, de- 
tached sentences, requiring few or none of those connectives, 
or words of transition, which are afterwards introduced into 
language by refinement, and which contribute so largely to its 
perspicuity and elegance. The argument appears to be con- 
clusive, then, that every language must necessarily have more 
parts of speech in its refined, than in its barbarous state. 

The part of speech to which any word belongs, is ascer- 
tained, not by the original signification of that word, but by 
its present manner of meaning, or, rather, the office tvhich it 
performs in a sentence. 

The various ways in which a word is applied to the idea 
which it represents, are called its manner of meaning. Thus, 
The painter dips his paint brush in paint, to paint the carriage. 
Here, the word paint, is first employed to describe the brush 
which the painter uses ; in this situation it is, therefore, an 
adjective ; secondly, to name the mixture employed ; for which 
reason it is a noun ; and, lastly, to express the action perform- 



CLASSIFICATION- 21) 

ed ; it, therefore, becomes a verb : and yet, the meaning of 
the word is the same in all these applications. This meaning, 
however, is applied in different ways ; and thus the same word 
becomes different parts of speech. Richard took water from 
the water pot, to water the plants. 

ETYMOLOGY. 

Etymology treats, first, of the classification of words. 

The English Language is derived chiefly from the Saxon, 
Danish, Celtick, and Gothick ; but in the progressive stages of 
its refinement, it has been greatly enriched by accessions from 
the Greek, Latin, French, Spanish, Italian, and German Ian 
guages. 

The number of words in our language, after deducting" pro 
per names, and words formed by the inflections of our verbs 
nouns, and adjectives, may be estimated at about forty thou 
sand. 

There are ten sorts of words, called parts of 
speech, namely, the noun or substantive, verb, 

ARTICLE, ADJECTIVE, PARTICIPLE, ADVERB, PRE- 
POSITION, PRONOUN, CONJUNCTION, and INTER- 
JECTION. 

Thus you perceive, that all the words in the English lan- 
guage are included in these ten classes : and what you have to 
do in acquiring a knowledge of English Grammar, is merely 
to become acquainted with these ten parts of speech, and the 
rules of Syntax that apply to them. The Noun and Verb are 
the most important and leading parts of speech; therefore they 
are first presented : all the rest (except the interjection) are 
either appendages or connectives of these two. As you pro- 
ceed, you will find that it will require more time, and cost you 
more labour, to get a knowledge of the noun and verb, than it 
will to become familiar with all the minor parts of speech. 

The principal use of words is, to name things, compare them 
with each other, and express their actions. 

Nouns, which are the names of entities or things, adjectives, 
which denote the comparisons and relations of things by describ- 
ing them, and expressing their qualities, and verbs, which ex- 
press the actions and being of things, are the only classes of 
words necessarily recognised in a philosophical view of gram- 
mar. But m a treatise which consults, mainly, the practical 
advantages of the learner, it is believed, that no classification 

3* 



30 or NOUNS. 

will be found more convenient or accurate than the foreo-oinff 
which divides words into ten sorts. To attempt to prove, iii 
this place, that nothing would be gained by adopting either a 
less or a greater number of the parts of speech, would be anti- 
cipating the subject. I shall, therefore, give my reasons for 
adopting this arrangement in preference to any other, as the 
different sorts of words are respectively presented to you, for 
then you will be better prepared to appreciate my arguments. 

OF NOUNS. 

A noun is the name of any person, place, or 
thing; as, man, Charleston, knowledge. 

Nouns are often improperly called substantives. A substan- 
tive is the name of a substance only ; but a noun is the name 
either of a substance or a quality. 

Nomi, derived from the Latin word nomen, signifies name. 
The name of any thing* that exists, whether animate or inani- 
mate, or which we can see, hear, feel, taste, smell, or think of, 
is a noun. Animal, bird, creature, paper, pen, apple, field, house. 

* The word thing, from the Saxon verb thingian, to think, is almost un- 
limited in its meaning. It may be applied to every animal and creature in 
the universe. By the term creature, I mean that which has been created ; 
as, a dog, water, dirt. This word is also frequently applied to actions ; as, 
" To get drunk is a beastly thing." In this phrase, it signifies neither animal 
nor creature ; but it denotes merely an action j therefore this action is the 
thing. 

NOTES ON PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR. 

Perhaps no subject has, in this age, elicited more patient research, and 
critical investigation of original, constituent principles, formations, and 
combinations, than the English language. The legitimate province of phi- 
lology, however, as I humbly conceive, has, in some instances, been made 
to yield to that of philosophy, so far as to divert the attention from the com- 
binations of our language which refinement has introduced, to radical ele- 
ments and associations which no way concern the progress of literature, or 
the essential use for which language was intended. Were this retrogressive 
mode of investigating and applying principles, to obtain, among philologists, 
the ascendency over that which accommodates the use of language to pro- 
gressive refinement, it is easy to conceive the state of barbarism to which 
society would, in a short time, be reduced. Moreover, if what some call 
the philosophy of language, were to supersede, altogether, the province of 
philology as it applies to the present progressive and refined state of Eng- 
lish literature, the great object contemplated by the learned, in all ages, 
namely, the approximation of language, in common with every tiling else, 
to that point of perfection at which it is the object of correct philology to ar- 
rive, would be frustrated. 

The dubious and wildering track struck out by those innovators and 
visionaries who absurdly endeavour to teach modern Eng- ish, by rejecting 
the authority and sanction of custom, and by conducting the learner back 



NOUNS. — COMMON AND PROPER. 31 

modesty, virtue, courage, danger, are all nouns. In order that 
you may easily distinguish this part of speech from others, I will 
give you a sign, which will be useful to you when you cannot 
tell it by the sense. Any word that will make sense with the be- 
fore it, is a noun. Try the following words by this sign, and 
see if they are nouns : tree, mountain, soul, mind, conscience, 
understanding. The tree, the mountain, the soul, and so on. 
You perceive, that they will make sense with the prefixed; 
therefore you know they are nouns. There are, however, ex- 
ceptions to this rule, for some nouns will not make sense with 
the prefixed. These you will be able to distinguish, if you ex- 
ercise your mind, by their making sense of themselves; as, good- 
ness, sobriety, hope, immortality. 

Nouns are used to denote the nonentity or absence of a thing, 
as well as its reality ; as, nothing, naught, vacancy, non-exist- 
ence, invisibility. 

Nouns are sometimes used as verbs, and verbs, as nouns, ac- 
cording to their manner of meaning ; and nouns are sometimes 
used as adjectives, and adjectives, as nouns. This matter will 
be explained in the concluding part of this lecture, where you 
will be better prepared to comprehend it. 

Nouns are of two kinds, common and proper. 
A Common noun is, the name of a sort or species 
of things ; as, man, tree, river. 

to the original combinations, and the detached, disjointed, and barbarous 
constructions of our progenitors, both prudence and reason, as well as a due 
regard for correct philology, impel me to shun. Those modest writers who, 
by bringing to their aid a little sophistry, much duplicity, and a wholesale 
traffick in the swelling phrases, " philosophy, reason, and common sena» " 
attempt to overthrow the wisdom of former ages, and show that the result 
of all the labours of those distinguished philologists who had previously 
occupied the field of grammatical science, is nothing but errour and folly 
will doubtless meet the neglect and contempt justly merited by such con- 
summate vanity and unblushing pedantry. Fortunately for those who em- 
ploy our language as their vehicle of mental conference, custom will not 
yield to the speculative theories of the visionary. If it would, improvement 
in English literature would soon be at an end, and we should be tamely 
conducted back to the Vandalick age. 

As the use of what is commonly called the philosophy of language, is evi- 
dently misapplied by those who make it the test of grammatical certainly. 
it may not be amiss to offer a few considerations with a view to expose 
the fallacy of so vague a criterion. 

Ail reasoning and investigation which depend on the philosophy of lan- 
guage for an ultimate result, must be conducted a posteriori. Its office 
according to the ordinary mode of treating the subject, is to trace Ian- 
guage < o its origin, not for the purpose of determining and fixing gram 
maticaV associations and dependances, such as the agreement, govern 
ment, a.u mutual relations of words, but in order to analyze combination* 
with a view to develop the first principles of the language, and arrive at tl 



32 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX, 

A Proper noun is the name of an individual ; as, 
Charles, Ithaca, Ganges. 

A noun signifying many, is called a collective 
noun, or noun of multitude ; as, the people, the 
army. 

The distinction between a common and a proper noun, is very 
obvious. For example : boy is a common noun, because it is 
a name applied to all boys ; but Charles is a proper noun, be- 
cause it is the name of an individual boy. Although many boys 
may have the same name, yet you know it is not a common 
noun, for the name Charles is not given to all boys. Mississippi 
is a proper noun, because it is the name of an individual river 5 
but river is a common noun, because it is the name of u, Species 
of things, and the name rwer is common to all rivers. 

Nouns which denote the genus, species, or variety of beings 
or things, are always common ; as, tree, the ^enus ; oak, ash, 
chestnut, poplar, different species ; and red oak, white oak, black 
oak, varieties. The word earth, when it signifies a kind or 
quantity of dirt, is a common noun; but when it denotes the 
planet we inhabit, it is a proper noun. The words person, place, 
river, mountain, lake, &c. are common nouns, because they are 
the names of whole species, or classes of things containing many 
sorts ; but the names of persons, places, rivers, mountains, 

primitive meaning of words. Now, it is presumed, that no one who has 
paid critical attention to the subject, will contend, that the original import 
of single words, has any relation to the syntactical dependances and con- 
nexions of words in general ; — to gain a knowledge of which, is the leading 
object of the student in grammar. And, furthermore, I challenge those 
who have indulged in such useless vagaries, to show by what process, with 
their own systems, they can communicate a practical knowledge of gram- 
mar. I venture to predict, that, if they make the attempt, they will find 
their systems more splendid in theory, than useful in practice. 

Again, it cannot rationally be contended, that the radical meaning has 
any efficiency in controlling the signification which, by the power of asso- 
ciation, custom has assigned to many words ;— a signification essentialkj dif- 
ferent from the original import. Were this the case, and were the language 
now to be taught and understood in compliance with the original import of 
words, it would have to undergo a thorough change ; to be analyzed, divided, 
and subdivided, almost ad infinitum. Indeed, there is the same propriety in 
asserting, that the Gothick, Danish, and Anglo-Saxon elements in our lan- 
guage, ought to be pronounced separately, to enable us to understand our 
vernacular tongue, that there is in contending, that their primitive meaning 
has an ascendency over the influence of the principle of association in 
changing, and the power of custom in determining, the import of words. 
Many of our words are" derived from the Greek, Roman, French, Spanish, 
Italian, and German languages ; and the only use we can make o< .heir .ori- 
ginals, is to render them subservient to the force of custom in cas-e m which 
general usage has not varied from the primitive signification. Moreover, let 



NOUNS. COMMON AND PROPER. 33 

lakes, &c. are proper nouns, because they denote individuals ; 
as, Augustus, Baltimore, Alps, Huron. 

Physician, lawyer, merchant, and shoemaker, are common 
nouns, because these names are common to classes of men. 
God and Lord, when applied to Jehovah or Jesus Christ, are 
proper ; but when employed to denote heathen or false gods, or 
temporal lords, they are common. 

The Notes and remarks throughout the work, though of mi- 
nor importance, demand your attentive and careful perusal. 

NOTES. 

1. When proper nouns have an article annexed to them, they are used 
after the manner of common nouns ; as, " Bolivar is styled the Washington 
of South America." 

2. Common nouns are sometimes used to signify individuals, when articles 
or pronouns are prefixed to them ; as, " The boy is studious ; That girl is 
discreet." In such instances, they are nearly equivalent to proper nouns. 

3. Common nouns are sometimes subdivided into the following classes : 
Nouns of Multitude; as, The people, the parliament: Verbal or participial 
nouns ; as, The beginning, reading, writing ; and Abstract nouns, or the 
names of qualities abstracted from their substances ; as, knowledge, virtue, 
goodness. Lest the student be led to blend the idea of abstract nouns with 
that of adjectives, both of which denote qualities, a further illustration ap- 
pears to be necessary, in order to mark the distinction oetween these two 
parts of speech. An abstract noun denotes a quality considered apart (that 
is, abstracted) from the substance or being to which it belongs ; but an ad- 
jective denotes a quality joined (adjected) to the substance or being to which 
it belongs. Thus, whiteness and white both denote the same quality ; but 
we speak of whiteness as a distinct object of thought, while we use the word 

the advocates of a mere philosophical investigation of the language, extend 
their system as far as a radical analysis will warrant them, and, with Home 
Tooke, not only consider adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjec- 
tions, as abbreviations of nouns and verbs, but, on their own responsibility, 
apply them, in teaching the language, in compliance with their radical import, 
and what would such a course avail them against the power of custom, and 
the influence of association and refinement ? Let them show me one gram- 
marian, produced by such a course of instruction, and they will exhibit a 
" philosophical'' miracle. They might as well undertake to teach archi- 
tecture, by having recourse to its origin, as represented by booths and tents. 
In addition to this, when we consider the great number of obsolete words, 
from which many now in use are derived, the original meaning of which 
cannot be ascertained, and, also, the multitude whose signification has been 
changed by the principle of association, it is preposterous to think, that a 
mere philosophical mode of investigating and teaching the language, is the 
one by which its significancy can be enforced, its correctness determined, 
its use comprehended, and its improvement extended. Before what com- 
monly passes for a philosophical manner of developing the language can 
successfully be made the medium through which it can be comprehended in 
all its present combinations, relations, and dependances, it must undergo 
a thorough retrogressive change, in all those combinations, relations, and 
dependances, even to the last letter of the alphabet. And before we can 
consent to this radical modification and retrograde ratio of the English 
language, we must agree to revive the customs, the habits, and the precise 
language of our progenitors, the Goths and Vandals. Were all the advo 



34 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 

white always in reference to the noun to which it belongs ; as, ivhite paper, 
white house. 

4. Some authors have proceeded to still more minute divisions and sub- 
divisions of nouns; such, for example, as the following, which appear to be 
more complex than useful : Natural nouns, or names of things formed by 
nature ; as, man, beast, water, air : 2. Artificial nouns, or names of things 
formed by art ; as, book, vessel, house : 3. Personal nouns, or those which 
stand for human beings; as, man, woman, Edwin: 4. Neuter nouns, or 
those which denote things inanimate ; as, book, field, mountain, Cincinnati. 
The following, however, is quite a rational division : Material nouns are 
the names of things formed of matter ; as, stone, book : Immaterial noum 
are the names of things having no substance ; as, hope, immortality. 

To nouns belong gender, person, number, and 
case. 

GENDER, 

Gender is the distinction of sex. Nouns have 
three genders, the masculine, the feminine, and 
the neuter. 

The masculine gender denotes males ; as, a man. 
a hoy. 

"The feminine gender denotes females ; as, a too- 
man 9 a girl. 

The neuter gender denotes things without sex > 
is, a hat, a stick. 

Neuter means neither: therefore neuter gender signifies nei 
ther gender ; that is, neither masculine nor feminine. Hence, 

cates for the introduction of such philosophical grammars into common 
schools, at once to enter -on their pilgrimage, and recede into the native 
obscurity and barbarity of the ancient Britons, Picts, and Vandals, it is be- 
lieved, that the cause of learning and refinement would not suffer greatiy 
by their loss, and that the good sense of the present age, would not allow 
many of our best teachers to be of the party. . • 

The last consideration which I shall give a philosophical manner of inves- 
tigating and enforcing the English language, is, that by this mode of analy- 
zing and reducing it to practice, it cannot, in this age, be comprehended as the 
medium of thought. Were this method to prevail, our present literal lan- 
<Tuacre would become a dead letter. Of what avail is language, if it can net 
be understood? And how can it be accommodated to the understanding 
unless it receive the sanction of common consent ? Even it we admit that 
such a manner of unfolding the principles of our language, is mere rational 
and correct than the ordinary, practical method, I think it is clear that such 
a mode of investigation and developement, does not meet the necessities 
and convenience of ordinary learners in school. To be consistent, that sys- 
tem which instructs by tracing a few of our words to their origin, must un- 
fold the whole in the same manner. But the student in common schools 
and academies, cannot afford time to stem the tide of language up to its 
source, and there dive to the bottom of the fountain for knowledge, bucli 
labour ought not to be required of him. His object is to become, not a 



NOUNS. GENDER. 35 

neuter gender means no gender. Strictly speaking, then, as 
there are but two sexes, nouns have but two genders ; but fo* 
the sake of practical convenience, we apply to them three gen 
ders, by calling that a gender which is no gender. The English 
and the pure Persian, appear to be the only languages which 
observe, in the distinction of sex, the natural division of nouns. 
— The genders of nouns are so easily known, that a farther ex- 
planation of them is unnecessary, except what is given in the 
following 

NOTES. 

1. The same noun is sometimes masculine and feminine, and sometimes 
masculine or feminine. The noun parents is of the masculine and feminine 
gender. The nouns parent, associate, neighbour, servant, friend, child, bird, 
fish, fyc. if doubtful, are of the masculine or feminine gender. 

2. Some nouns naturally neuter, are, when used figuratively, or personi- 
fied, converted into the masculine or feminine gender. Those nouns are 
generally rendered masculine, which are conspicuous for the attributes of 
imparting or communicating, and which are by nature strong and effica- 
cious ; as, the sun, time, death, sleep, winter, #c. Those, again, are generally 
feminine, which are conspicuous for the attributes of containing or bringing 
forth, or which are very beautiful, mild, or amiable : as, the earth, moon, 
church, boat, vessel, city, country, nature, ship, soul, fortune, virtue, hope, spring, 
peace, fyc. This principle for designating the sex of a personified object, which 
is quite rational, is generally adhered to in the English language ; but, in 
some instances, the poet applies the sex according to his fancy. 

The masculine and feminine genders are distinguished in three ways : 
1. By different words \; as, 
Masculine, Feminine. Masculine, Feminine, 

Bachelor maid Boy girl 

Boar sow Brother sister 

philosophical antiquarian, but a practical grammarian. If I comprehend 
the design (if they have any) of our modern philosophical writers on this 
subject, it is to make grammarians by inculcating a few general principles, 
arising out of the genius of the language, and the nature of things, which 
the learner, by the exercise of his reasoning poicers, must reduce to practice. 
His own judgment, independent of grammar rules, is to be his guide in speak- 
ing and writing correctly. Hence, many of them exclude from their sys- 
tems, all exercises in what is called false Syntax. But these profound phi- 
lological dictators appear to have overlooked the important consideration, 
that the great mass of mankind, and especially of boys and girls in common 
schools, can never become philosophers; and, consequently, can never com- 
prehend and reduce to practice their metaphysical and obscure systems of 
grammar. I wish to see children treated as reasoning beings. But there 
should be a medium in all things. It is, therefore, absurd to instruct chil- 
dren as if they were already profound philosophers and logicians. 

To demonstrate the utility, and enforce the necessity, of exercising the 
learner in correcting false Syntax, I need no other argument than the inte- 
resting and undeniable fact, that Mr. Murray's labeurs, in this department, 
have effected a complete revolution in the English language, in point of ver- 
bal accuracy. Who does not know, that the best writers of this day, are not 
guilty of one grammatical inaccuracy, where those authors who wrote before 
Mr. Murray flourished, are guilty of five ? And what has produced this iro- 



36 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 



Buck 


doe 


Lord 


lady 


Bull 


cow* 


Man 


woman 


Cock 


hen 


Master 


mistress 


Dog 
Drake 


bitch 
duck 


Milter 
Nephew 


spawner 
niece 


Earl 


countess 


Ram 


ewr 


Father 

Friar 

Gander 


mother 

nun 

goose 


Singer 
Sloven 


songstress or 

singer 
slut 


Hart 


roe 


Son 


daughter 
hind 


Horse 


mare 


Stag 


Husband 


wife 


Uncle 


aunt 


King 


queen 


Wizard 


witch 


Lad 


lass 


Sir 


madam 




2. By a difference in termination; 


as, 


Abbot 


abbess 


Elector 


electress 


Actor 


actress 


Embassador 


embassadress 


Administrator 


administratrix 


Emperour 
Enchanter 


empress 


Adulterer 


adulteress 


enchantress 


Ambassador 


ambassadress 


Executor 


executrix 


Arbiter 


arbitress 


Fornicator 


fornicatress 


Auditor 


auditress 


God 


goddess 


Author 


authoress 


Governour 


governess 
heiress 


Baron 


baroness 


Heir 


Benefactor 


benefactress 


Hero 


heroine 


Bridegroom 


bride 


Host 


hostess 


Canon 


canoness 


Hunter 


huntress 


Caterer 


cateress 


Inheritor 


inheritress or 


Chanter 


chantress 




inheritrix 


Conductor 


conductress 


Instructer 


instructress 


Count 


countess 


Jew 


Jewess 


Czar 


czarina 


Lion 


lioness 


Deacon 


deaconess 


Marquis 


marchioness 


Detracter 


detractress 


Mayor 


mayoress 


Director 


directress 


Patron 


patroness 


Duke 


dutehess 


Peer 


peeress 



portant change for the better? Ask the hundreds of thousands who have 
studied " Mr. Murray's exercises in False Syntax." If, then, this view ot 
the subject is correct, it follows, that the greater portion of our philosophical 
grammars, are far more worthy the attention of literary connoisseurs, than 
of the great mass of learners. 

Knowing that a strong predilection for philosophical grammars, exists in 
the minds of some teachers of this science, I have thought proper, for the 
gratification of sucb, to intersperse through the pages of this work, under the 
head of "Philosophical Notes," an entire system of grammatical prin- 
ciples as deduced from what appears to me to be the most rational and con- 
sistent philosophical investigations. They who prefer this theory to that 
exhibited in the body of the work, are, of course, at liberty to adopt it. 

In general, a philosophical theory of grammar will be found to accord icith the 
practical theory embraced in the body of this work. Wherever such agreement 
exists, the system contained in these Notes will be deficient, and this deficiency 
may be supplied by adopting the principles contained in the other parts of the 
work. 

OF THE PHILOSOPHICAL CLASSIFICATION OF WORDS. 

According to the method in which philosophical investigations of language 
have generally been conducted, all our words should be reduced to two 



NOUNS, 



Poet 

Priest 

Prince 

Prior 

Prophet 

Proprietor 

Protector 

Shepherd 

Songster 

Sorcerer 

Suiter 



poetess 

priestess 

*>rinces3 

prioress 

prophetess 

proprietress 

protectress 

shepherdess 

songstress 

sorceress 

suitress 



Sultan 


sultaness or 




sultana 


Tiger 


tigress 


Testator 


testatrix 


Traitor 


traitress 


Tutor 


tutoress 


Tyrant 


tyranness 


Victor 


victress^ 


Viscount 


viscountess 


Votary 


votaress 


Widower 


widow 


mother word ; as, 




A hen-sparrow 


A maid-servant 


A she-goat 


A she-bear 


A female-child 


Female-descendants 



37 



A cock-sparrow 
A man-servant 
A he-goat 
A he-bear 
A male-child 
Male-descendants 

PERSON. 

Person is a property of the noun and pronoun 
which varies the verb. 

The first person denotes the speaker. 

The second person denotes the person or thing 
spoken to ; as, " Listen, O earth /" 

The third person denotes the person or thing 
spoken of; as, " The earth thirsts." 

Nouns have but two persons, the second and third. When 
a man speaks, the pronoun I or ive is always used ; therefore 
nouns can never be in the first person. In examples like the 

classes ; for it can be easily shown, that from the noun and verb, all the 
other paits of speech have sprung. Nay, more. They may even be re- 
duced to one. Verbs do not, in reality, express actions ; but they are in- 
trinsically the mere names of actions. The idea of action or being commu- 
nicated by them, as well as the meaning of words m general, is merely infe- 
rential. The principle of reasoning assumed by the celebrated Home 
Tooke, if carried to its full extent, would result, it is believed, in proving 
that we have but one part of speech. 

Jldnouns or adjectives were originally nouns. Sweet, red, white, are the 
names cf qualities, as well as sweetness, redness, whiteness. The former 
differ from the latter only in their manner of signification. To denote 
that the name of some quality or substance is to be used in connexion with 
some other name, or, that this quality is to be attributed to some other name, 
we sometimes affix to it the termination en, ed, or y; which signifies give, 
add, or join. When we employ the words wooden, woollen, wealthy, grassy, 
the terminations en and y, by their own intrinsick meaning, give notice that 
we intend to give, add, or join, the names of some other substances in which 
are found the properties or qualities of wood, icool, wealth, or grass. 

Pronouns are a class of nouns, used instead of others to prevent their dis- 
agreeable repetition. Participles are certain forms ©f the verb. Article? 



3S 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX, 



following, some philologists suppose the noun to be in the first 
person :— " This may certify, that I, Jonas Taylor, do hereby 
give and grant," &c. But it is evident, that the speaker or 
writer, in introducing his own name, speaks of himself; con- 
sequently the noun is of the third person. 

If you wish to understand the persons of nouns, a little sober 
thought is requisite; and, by exercising it, all difficulties will 
be removed. If I say, my son, have you seen the young man ? 
you perceive that the noun son is of the second person, because 
I address myself to him ; that is, he is spoken to ; but the noun 
man is of the third person, because he is spoken of. Again, 
if I say, young man, have you seen my son 1 man is of the 
second person, and son is of the third. 

" Hast thou left thy blue course in the heavens, golden 
haired sun of the sky 1" 

" Father, may the Great Spirit so brighten the chain of 
friendship between us, that a child may find it, when the sun is 
asleep in his wig-wam behind the western waters." 

" Lo, earth receives him from the bending skies ! 
Sink down ye mountains, and, ye valleys, rise !" 
" Eternal Hope, thy glittering wings explore 
Earth's loneliest bound s,and ocean's wildest shore." 

In these examples, the nouns, sun, father, mountains, valleys, 
and hope, are of the second person, and, as you will hereafter 
learn, in the nominative case independent. Course, heavens, sky, 
Spirit, chain, friendship, child, sun, wig-wam, waters, earth, 
skies, wings, earth, bounds, ocean, and shore, are all of the 
third person. 

interjections, adverbs, prepositions, and conjunctions, are contractions or 
abbreviations of nouns and verbs. Jin (a, ane, or one) comes from ananad, 
to add, to heap. The and that .from the Anglo-Saxon verb thean, to get, as 
sume. Lo is the imperative of look ; fie, of flan, to hate ; and welcome means, 
it is well that you are come. In comes from the Gothick noun inna, the in- 
teriour of the body ; and about, from boda, the first outward boundary. 
Through or thorough is the Teutonick noun thuruh, meaning passage, gate, 
door. From is the Anglo-Saxon noun fmm, beginning, source, author. He 
came from {beginning) Batavia. If (formerly written gif, give, gin) is the 
imperative of the Anglo-Saxon verb gifan, to give. I will remain- if (give or 
grmit that fact) he will (remain.) But comes from the Saxon verb beon-uta^ 
to be-out. I informed no one but (be-out, leave-out) my brother. 

This brief view of the subject, is sufficient to elucidate the manner in 
which, according to Home Tooke's principles, the ten parts of speech are 
reduced to one. But I am, by no means, disposed to concede, that this is the 
true principle of classification ; nor that it is any more philosophical or ra- 
tional than one which allows a more practical division and arrangement of 
words. What has been generally received as " philosophical grammar," 
appears to possess no stronger claims to that imposing appellation than our 
common, practical grammars. Query. Is not Mr. Mm ray's octavo gram- 



NOUNS.— Nl MBER, 39 

NUMBER. 

Number is the distinction of objects, as one or 
more. Nouns are of two numbers, the singular 
and the plural. 

The singular number implies but one ; as, a 

book. 

The plural number implies more than one ; as, 

books. 

NOTES. 

1. Some nouns are used only in the singular form ; as, hemp, flax, barley, 
wheat, pitch, gold, sloth, pride, honesty, meehness, compassion, &c ; others 
only in the plural form ; as, bellows, scissors, ashes, riches, snuffers, tongs, 
thanks, wages, embers, ides % pains, vespers, &c. 

2. Some words are the same in both numbers j as, deer, sheep, swine ; 
and, also, hiatus, apparatus, series, species. 

3. The plural numbei of nouns is generally formed by adding s to the sin- 
gular ; as, dove, doves ; face, faces ; but sometimes we add es in the plural ; 
as, box, boxes ; church, churches ; lash, lashes , cargo, cargoes. 

4. Nouns ending in/or/e, are rendered plural by a change of that termi- 
nation into res; as, half, halves; wife, wives; except grief, relief, reproof, 
and several others, which form their pluiais by the addition of.-?. Those end- 
ing in ff, have the regular plural ; as, ruff, luffs; except staff, staves. 

5. Nouns ending in y in the singular, with no other vowel in the same 
syllable, change it into ies in the plural ; as, beauty, beauties ; fly, flies. 
But the y is not changed, where there is another vowel in the syllable ; as, 
key, keys ; delay, delays ; attorney, attorneys ; valley, vallevs ; chimney, 
chimneys. 

6. Mathematicks, metaphysick*, politicks, epticks, ethicks, pneumaticks, hy* 
draulicks, <$*c. are construed either as singular or plural nouns. 

7. The word news is always singular. The nouns means, alms, and 
amends, though plural in form, may be either singular or plural in significa- 

rnar more worthy the dignified title of a "Philosophical Giammar," than 
Home Tooke's " Diversions of Purley," or Wil 1 '****? S. Gardens treatises on 
language ? What constitutes a philosophical treatise, on this, or on any 
other subject ? Wherein is there a display of philosophy in a speculative, 
etymological performance, which attempts to develop and explain the 
elements and primitive meaning of words by tracing them to thtir origin, 
s\ipericur to the philosophy employed in the development and illustration of 
the principles by which we are governed in applying those words to their 
legitimate purpose, namely, that of forming a correct and convenient me- 
dium by means of which we can communicate our thoughts ? Does philoso- 
phy consist in ransacking the mouldy records of antiquity, in order to guess 
at the ancient construction and signification of single words ? or have such 
investigations, in reality, any thing to do with grammar ? 

Admitting that all the words of our langaage include, in their original 
signification, the import of nouns or names, and yet, it does not follow, that 
they now possess no other powers, and, in their combinations and conne*. 
ions in sentences, are employed for no other purpose, than barely to name 
objects. The fuel of the case is, that words are variously combined and ap- 
plied, to answer the distinct and diversified purposes of naming objects, a*- 



40 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 



teeth; goose, eeese • foot fc»* women > ch ? ,d » children ; ox, oxen ; tooth, 
thersoAret^fcoV coWsfr ; kine° U ^ m,Ce; l0USe ' Kce ' broth ^ hrol 
coin is meant j di'e,Xe t7 a Z dies L P ! "• * Pe " Ce ' ° r Pf nnies when th e 



Singular. 

Antithesis 
Apex 

Appendix 

Arcanum 
Automaton 
Axis 
Basis 

Beau 
Calx 

Cherub 

Crisis 

Criterion 

Datum 

Diaeresis 

Desideratum 

Effluvium 

Ellipsis 

Emphasis 

Encomium 

Erratum 



Plural. 

antitheses 
apices 

f appendixes or 
appendices 
arcana 
automata 
axes 
bases 

J beaux or 
beaus 
C calces or 
I calxes 
C cherubim or 
I cherubs 

crises 

criteria 

data 

diaereses 

desiderata 

effluvia 

ellipses 

emphases 

S encomia 
encomiums 
errata 



Singular. 
Genius 
Genus 
Hypothesis 
Ignis fatuus 

Index 

Lamina 
Magus 

Memorandum 

Metamorphosis 

Parenthesis 

Phenomenon 

Radius 

Stamen 

Seraph 

Stimulus 
Stratum 
Thesis 
Vertex 

Vortex 



Plural. 

genii* 

genera 

hypotheses 

ignes fatui 
f indices or 
( indexesf 

laminae 

magi 

J memoranda or 
memorandums 
metamorphose* 
parentheses 
phenomena 

J radii or 
radiuses 
stamina 
f seraphim or 
I seraphs 
stimuli 
strata 
theses 
vertices 

C vortices or 
( vortexes 



* Genii, imaginary spirits : geniuses, persons of great mental abilities, 
f Indexes, when pointers or tables of contents are meant: indices, when 
referring to algebraick quantities. 



serting truths, pointing out and limiting objects, attributing qualities to objects 
connecting objects, and so on ; and on this fact is founded the true philosophi- 
cal principle of the classification of words. Hence, an arrangement of words 
into classes according to this principle, followed by a development and illus 
tration of the principles and rules that regulate us in the proper use and ap- 
plication of words in oral and written discourse, appears to approximate as 
near to a true definition of philosophical grammar, as any I am capable of 
giving. 

Nouns, or the names of the objects of our perceptions, doubtless consti- 
tuted the original class of words ; (if I may be allowed to assume such a 
hypothesis as an original class of words ;) but the ever-active principle of 
association, soon transformed nouns into verbs, by making them, when 



NOUNS, CASE. ^l 

CASE. 
Case, when applied to nouns and pronouns, 
means the different state, situation, or position 
they have in relation to other words. Nouns have 
three cases, the nominative, the possessive, and 
the objective. 

I deem the essential qualities of case, in English, to consist, 
not in the changes or inflections produced on nouns and pro- 
nouns, but in the various offices which they perform in a sen- 
tence, by assuming different positions in regard to other words. 
In accordance with this definition, these cases can be easily ex- 
plained on reasoning principles, founded in the nature of things. 

Now, five grains of common sense will enable any one to 
comprehend what is meant by case. Its real character is ex- 
tremely simple ; but in the different grammars it assumes as 
many meanings as Proteus had shapes. The most that has been 
written on it, however, is mere verbiage. What, then, is meant 
by case 1 In speaking of a horse, for instance, we say he is in a 
good case, when he is fat, and in a bad case, when he is lean, and 
needs more oats ; and in this sense we apply the term case to 
denote the state or condition of the horse. So, when we place a 
noun before a verb as actor or subject, we say it is in the nomi- 
native case ; but when it follows a transitive verb or preposition^ 
we say it has another case ; that is, it assumes a new position Of 
situation in the sentence : and this we call the objective case. 
Thus, the boy gathers fruit. Here the boy is represented as 
acting. He is, therefore, in the nominative case. But when 1 
say, Jane struck the boy, I do not represent the boy as the actor, 
but as the object of the action. He is, therefore, in a new case 
or condition. And when I say, This is the boxfs hat, I do not 
speak of the boy either as acting or as acted upon ; but as pos- 
sessing something : for which reason he is in the- possessive case. 
Hence, it is clear, that nouns have three cases or positions. 

As the nominative and objective cases of the noun are insep- 
arably connected with the verb, it is impossible for you to un- 
employed in a particular manner, expressive of affirmation. This same 
principle also operated in appropriating names to the purpose of attributing 
qualities to other names of objects ; and in this way was constituted the 
class of words called adjectives or attributes. By the same principle were 
formed all the other classes. 

In the following exposition of English grammar on scientifick principles, 
I shall divide words into seven classes, Nouns or Names, Verbs, Jidjectives, 
Mnouns, or Jit tributes t Adverbs, Prepositions, Pronouns, and Conjunctions or 
Connectives. 

For an explanation of the noun, refer to the body of the work. 

4* 



42 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 



derstand them until you shall have acquired some knowledge 
of this part of speech. I will, therefore, now give you a partial 
description of the verb in connexion with the noun ; which will 
enable me to illustrate the cases of the noun so clearly, that you 
may easily comprehend their nature. 

In the formation of language, mankind, in order to hold con- 
verse with each other, found it necessary, in the first place, to 
give names to the various objects by which they were surrounded. 
Hence the origin of the first part of speech, which we denomi- 
nate the -noun. But merely to name the objects which they be- 
held or thought of, was not sufficient for their purpose. They 
perceived that these objects existed, moved, acted, or caused 
some action to be done. In looking at a man, for instance, they 
perceived that he lived, walked, ate, smiled, talked, ran, and so 
on. They perceived that plants grow, flowers bloom, and 
rivers flow. Hence the necessity of another part of speech, 
whose office it should be to express these existences and ac- 
tions. This second class of words we call 

VERBS. 

A Verb is a word which signifies to be, to do, 
or to suffer ; as, I am ; I rule ; I am ruled. 

Verbs are of three kinds, active, passive, and 
neuter. They are also divided into regular, irre- 
gular, and defective. 

The term verb is derived from the Latin word verbnm, which 
signifies a word. This part of speech is called a verb or tvord, 
because it is deemed the most important word in every sentence : 
and without a verb and nominative, either expressed or implied, 
no sentence can exist. The noun is the original and leading 
part of speech ; the verb comes next in order, and is far more 
complex than the noun. These two are the most useful in the 
language, and form the basis of the science of grammar. The 
other eight parts of speech are subordinate to these two, and, as 
you will hereafter learn, of minor importance. 

For all practical purposes, the foregoing definition and division 
of the verb, though, perhaps, not philosophically correct, will be 
found as convenient as any other. I adopt them, therefore, to be 
consistent with the principle, that, in arranging the materials of 
this treatise, I shall not alter or reject any established defi 
nition, rule, or principle of grammar, unless, in my humble 
]udgment, some practical advantage to the learner is thereby 
gained. The following, some consider a good definition. 

A verb is a word which expresses affirmation. 



VERBS. — ACTIVE AND NEUTER. 43 

An active verb expresses action ; and 
The nominative case is the actor, or subject of 
the verb ; as, John writes. 

In this example, which is the verb ? You know it is the word 
writes, because this word signifies to do ; that is, it expresses 
action, therefore, according to the definition, it is an active verb. 
And you know, too, that the noun John is the actor, therefore 
John is in the nominative case to the verb writes. In the expres- 
sions, The man walks— The boy plays— Thunders roll— War- 
riours fight — you perceive that the words walks, plays, roll, and 
fight, are active verbs ; and you cannot be at a loss to know, 
that the nouns man, boy, thunders, and warriours, are in the 
nominative case. 

As no action can be produced without some agent or moving 
cause, it follows, that every active verb must have some actor 
or agent. This actor, doer, or producer of the action, is the 
nominative. Nominative, from the Latin nomino, literally sig- 
nifies to name ; but in the technical sense in which it is used in 
grammar, it means the noun or pronoun which is the subject of 
affirmation. This subject or nominative may be active, passive, 
or neuter, as hereafter exemplified. 

A neuter verb expresses neither action nor pas- 
sion, but beings or a state of being; as, John sits. 

Now, in this example, John is not represented as an actoii*, 
but, as the subject of the verb sits, therefore John is in the nomi- 
native case to the verb. And you know that the word sits does 

PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES. 

Plausible arguments may be advanced, for rejecting neuter and passive 
verbs ; but they have been found to be so convenient in practice, that the 
theory which recognises them, has stood the test of ages. If you tell the 
young learner, that, in the following expressions, The church rests on its 
foundation ; The book lies on the desk ; The boys remain {are) idle, the 
nouns church, book, and boys, are represented as acting, and, therefore, the 
verbs rests, lies, remain, and are, are active, he will not believe you, because 
there is no action that is apparent to his senses. And should you proceed 
farther, and, by a laboured and metaphysical investigation and development 
of the laws of motion, attempt to prove to him that " every portion of matter 
is influenced by different, active principles, tending to produce change," 
and, therefore, every thing in universal nature is always acting, it is not at 
all probable, that you could convince his understanding, in opposition to the 
clearer testimony of his senses. Of what avail to learners is a theory 
which they cannot comprehend ? 

Among the various theorists and speculative writers on philosophical 
grammar, the ingenious Home Tooke stands pre-eminent ; but, unfortu- 
nately, his principal speculations on the verb, have never met the publick 
e*'e William S. Cardell has also rendered himself conspicuous in the philo- 



44 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 

not express apparent action, but a condition of being ; that is, it 
represents John in a particular state of existence ; therefore sits is 
a neater verb. In speaking of the neuter gender of nouns, I in- 
formed you, that neuter means neither ; from which it follows, 
that neuter gender implies neither gender; that is, neither mas- 
culine nor feminine. Hence, by an easy transition of thought, 
you learn, that neuter, when applied to verbs, means neither of 
the other two classes ; that is, a neuter verb is one which is nei- 
ther active nor passive. In these examples, The man stands — 
The lady lives — The child sleeps — The world exists — the words 
stands, lives, sleeps, and exists, are neuter verbs ; and the nouns, 
man, lady, child, and world, are all in the nominative case, be- 
cause each is the subject of a verb. Thus you perceive, that 
when a noun is in the nominative case to an active verb, it is the 
actor ; and when it is nominative to a neuter verb, it is not an 
actor, but the subject of the verb. 

Some neuter verbs express being in general ; as, The man 
is ; Kingdoms exist. Others express being in some partictdar 
state ; as, The man stands, sits, lies, or hangs. 

I will now give you two signs, which will enable you to dis- 
tinguish the verb from other parts of speech, when you cannot 
tell it by its signification. Any word that will make sense with 
to before it, is a verb. Thus, to run, to write, to smile, to sing, 
to hear, to ponder, to live, to breathe, are verbs. Or, any word 
that will conjugate, is a verb. Thus, I run, thou runnest, he 
runs ; I write, thou writest, he writes ; I smile, &c. But the 
words, boy, lady, child, and world, will not make sense with to 
prefixed— to boy, to lady, to world, is nonsense. Neither will 

logical field, by taking a bolder stand than any of his predecessors. His 
view of the verb is novel, and ingeniously supported. The following is the 
substance of his theory 

OF THE VERB. 

A. verb is a word which expresses action ; as, Man exists ; 
Trees grow ; Waters flow ; Mountains stand ; lam. 

All verbs are active, and have one object or more than one, expressed o? 
implied. The pillar stands ; that is, it keeps itself in an erect or standing 
posture ; it upholtls or sustains itself in that position. They are ; 1. e. they 
air themselves, or breathe air ; they inspirit, vivify, or uphold themselves by 

inhaling air. ■ •••'%. i 

Many verbs whose objects are seldom expressed, always have a personal 
or verbal one implied. The clouds move; i. e. move themselves along Tie 
troops marched twenty miles a day ; i. e. marched themselves. The moon 
shines:— The moon shines or sheds a shining, sheen, lustre, or brightness. 
The sparrow flies .— flies or takes a flight. Talkers talk or speak words or 
talk; Walkers walk loalkings or walks; The rain rains rain; Sitters sit or 
hold sittings or sessions. 

To prove that there is no such thinsr as a neuter verb, the following ap- 
pear to be the strongest arguments adduced. 



VERBS.— NUMBER AND PERSON. 45 

tney ctnjugate—l lady, thou ladiest, &c. is worse than nonscnBe 
Hence you perceive, that these words are not verbs. There are 
some exceptions to these rules, for verbs are sometimes used as 
nouns. This will be explained by and by. 

To verbs belongnumber, person, mood, and tense. 

At present I shall speak only of the number and person of 
verbs ; but hereafter I will give you a full explanation of all their 
properties. And permit me to inform you, that I shall not lead 
you into the intricacies of the science, until, by gradual and easy 
progressions, you are enabled to comprehend the principles in- 
volved in them. Only such principles will be elucidated, as you 
are prepared to understand at the time they are unfolded^ before 
you. You must not be too anxious to get along rapidly ; but 
endeavour to become thoroughly acquainted with one principle, 
before you undertake another. This lecture will qualify you for 
the next. 

Number and person op verbs. You recollect, that the 
nominative is the actor or subject, and the active verb is the ac- 
tion performed by the nominative. By this you perceive, that a 
very intimate connexion or relation exists between the nomina- 
tive case and the verb. If, therefore, only one creature or thing 
acts, only one action, at the same instant, can be done ; as, The 
girl writes. The nominative girl is here of the singular num- 
ber, because it signifies but one person ; and the verb ivrites de- 
notes but one action, which the girl performs ; therefore the verb 
writes is of. the singular number, agreeing with its nominative 
girl. When the nominative case is plural, the verb must be 
plural ; as, girls ivrite. Take notice, the singular verb ends in s, 

1. No portion of matter is ever in a state of perfect quiescence ; but the 
component parts of every thing are at all times " influenced by different, 
active principles, tending to produce change." Hence, it follows, that no 
being or thing can be represented in a neuter or non-acting state. 

This argument supposes the essential character of the verb to be identified 
with the primary laws of actioii, as unfolded by the principles of physical 
science. The correctness of this position may be doubted ; but if it can 
be clearly demonsta ; *\ that every particle of matter is always in motion, 
it does not, by any means, follow, that we cannot speak of things in a state 
of quiescence. What is false in fact may be correct in grammar. The point 
contested, is not whether things always act, but whether, when we assert or af- 
firm something respecting them, we always represent them as acting. 

2. Verbs were originally used to express the motions or changes of things 
which produced obvious actions, and, by an easy transition, were afterwards 
applied, in the same way, to things whose actions were not apparent. 

This assumption is untenable, and altogether gratuitous. 

3. Verbs called neuter are used in the imperative mood ; and, as this mood 
commands some one to do something, any verb which adopts it, must be ac- 
tive. Thus, in the common place phrases, " Be there quickly ; Stand out oi 
my wav j Sit or lie farther." 



46 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 

but the noun is generally plural when it ends in s ; thus, The 
girl im % ites — the girls write. 

Person, strictly speaking, is a quality that belongs vol to verbs, 
but to nouns and pronouns. We say, however, that the verb 
must agree with its nominative in person, as well as in number ; 
that is, the verb must be spelled and spoken in such a manner as 
to correspond with the first, second, or third person of the noun 
or pronoun which is its nominative. 

I will now show you how the verb is varied in order to agree 
with its nominative in number and person. I, Thou, He, She, 
It ; We, Ye or You, They, are personal pronouns. J is of the 
first person, and singidar number ; Thou is second per. sing. ; 
He, She, or //, is third per. sins:. ; We is first per. plural ; Ye or 
Yon is second per. plural; They is third per. plural. These 
pronouns are the representatives of nouns, and perform the same 
office that the nouns would for which they stand. When placed 
before the verb, they are, therefore, the nominatives to the verb. 

Notice, particularly, the different variations cr endings of the 
verb, as it is thus conjugated in the 

Indicative Mood, Present Tense. 





Singular. 




Plural. 


1. Per. 

2. Per. 

3. Per. 


I walk, 

Thou walkesf, 
He walks, or \ 
the boy walks, > 


1. Per. 

2. Per. 

3. Per. 


We Walk, 
Ye or you walk, 
They walk, or \ 
the boys walk. J 



or walke//i. ) 
This display of the verb shows you, that whenever it ends in 
€$ty it is of the second person singular ; but when the verb ends 

It is admitted that these verb* are here employed in an active sense ; but 
t is certain, that they are not used according to their proper, literal meaning. 
When I tell a man, literally, to stand, sit, or lie, by moving he would disobey 
ine ; but when I say, " Stand out of my way," I employ the neuter verb 
stand, instead of the active verb movr or go, and in a correspondent sense. 
My meaning is, Move yourself out of my way ; or take your stand somewhere 
tflse. This, however, does not prove that stand is properly used. If we 
choose to overstep the bounds of custom, we can en«>loy any word in the 
language as an active-transitive verb. Be, sit, and lie, may be explained in 
the same manner. 

4. Neuter verbs are used in connexion with adverbs which express the 
manner of action. They must, therefore, be considered active veibs. The 
child sleeps soundly ; He sits genteelly ; They live contentedly and happily 
together. 

The class of verbs that are never employed as active, is small. By using 
adverbs in connexion with verbs, we can fairly prove that some verbs are not 
active. It is incorrect to say, I am happily ; They were peacefully ; She re- 
mains quietly ; The fields appear greenly. These verbs i.i their common 
acceptation, do not express action; for which reason we say, I am happy; 
They were peaceful; &c. But in the expressions, The cbild sleeps soundly / 



VERBS. NUMBER AND PERSON. 47 

in s, or eih, it is of the third person singular. Walkest, ridest, 
standest, are of the second person singular ; and ivalks or wcM- 
e'h. rides or rideih, stands or standeth, are of the third person 

singular. 

f have told you, that when the nominative is singular number . 
the verb must be ; when the nominative is plural, the verb must 
be • and when the nominative is first, second, or third person, 
the verb must be of the same person. If you look again at the 
foregoing conjugation of walk, you will notice that the verb va 
ries its endings in the singular, in order to agree in form with thft 
first, second, and third person of its nominative ; but in the plu 
ral it does not vary its endings from the first person singular 
The verb, however, agrees in sense with its nominative in the 
plural, as well as in the singular. Exercise a little mind, and 
you will perceive that agreement and government in language do 
not consist merely in the form of words. Now, is it not clear, that 
when I say, I walk, the verb walk is singular, because it ex- 
presses but one action? And when I say, Two men walk, is it 
not equally apparent, that walk is plural, because it expresses 
two actions 1 In the sentence, Ten men walk, the verb walk 
denotes ten actions, for there are ten actors. Common sense 
teaches you, that there must be as many actions as there are 
actors; and that the verb, when it has no form or ending to show 
it, is as strictly plural, as when it has. So, in the phrase, We 
walk, the verb walk is first person, because it expresses the ac- 
tions performed by the speakers : Ye or you walk, the verb is 
second person, denoting the actions of the persons spoken to ; 
third person, They walk. The verb, then, when correctly written, 

She sits gracefully ; They live happily and contentedly ; we employ the verhs 
sleeps, sits, and live, in an active sense. When no action is intended, we 
say, They live happy and contented. 

If, on scientifick principles, it can be proved that those verbs generally 
denominated neuter, originally expressed action, their present, accepted 
meaning will still oppose the theory, for the generality of mankind do not 
attach to them the idea of action. 

Thus I have endeavoured to present a brief but impartial abstract of the 
modern theory of the verb, leaving it with the reader to estimate it according 
to its value. 

To give a satisfactory definition of the verb, or such a one as shall be found 
scientifically correct and unexceptionable, has hitherto baffled the skill, and 
transcended the learning, of our philosophical writers. If its essential qua- 
lity, as is generally supposed, is made to consist in expressing affirmation, it 
remains still to be defined when a verb expresses affirmation. In English, 
and in other languages, words appropriated to express affirmation, are often 
used without any such force ; our idea of affirmation, in such instances, be- 
ing the mere inference of custom. 

In the sentence, — " Think, love, and hate, denote moral actions," the words 
think, love, and hate, are nouns, because they are mere names of actions. So, 
when I say, " John, write is an irregular verb," the word wnte is a 



48 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 

always agrees, in sense, with its nominative in number and 
person. 

At present you are learning two parts of speech, neither ot 
which can be understood without a knowledge of the other. It 
therefore becomes necessary to explain them both in the same 
lecture. You have been already informed, that nouns have threo 
cases ; the nominative, the possessive, and the objective. 

Possessive Case. The possessive case denotes 
the possessor of something ; as, This is Joh?i 9 $ 
horse. 

This expression implies, that John is the owner or possessor 
of the horse ; and, that horse is the property which he. possesses. 

When I say, These are the men's, and those, the boys' hats, 
the two words, " boys' hats," plainly convey the idea, if they 
have any meaning at ail, that the boys own or possess the hats. 
" Samuel Badger sells boys' hats." Who owns the hats 1 Mr. 
Badger. How is that fact ascertained? Not by the words, 
" boys' hats," which, taken by themselves, imply, not that they are 
Mr. Badger's hats, nor that they are for boys, but that they are 
hats of, or belonging to, or possessed by boys. But we infer from 
the words connected with the phrase, " boys' hats," that the boys 
are not yet, as the phrase literally denotes, in the actual posses- 
sion of the hats. The possession is anticipated. 

In the phrases, fine hats, coarse hats, high-crowned hats, broad- 
brimmed hats, woollen, new, ten, some, these, many hats, the 
words in italicks, are adjectives, because they restrict, qualify, 
or define the term hats ; but the term boys' does not describe 
or limit the meaning of hats. Boys', therefore, is not, as some 
suppose, an adjective. 

" The slave's master." Does the slave possess the mas- 
ter ? Yes. The slave has a master. If he has him, then, he 
possesses him ; — he sustains that relation to him which we call 
possession. 

noun ; but when I say, " John, write your copy," write is called a 

verb. Why is this word considered a noun in one construction, and a verb 
in the other, when both constructions, until you pass beyond the word 
write, are exactly alike ? If write does not express action in the former sen- 
tence, neither does it in the latter, for, in both, it is introduced in the same 
manner. On scientifick principles, write must be considered a noun in the 
latter sentence, for it does not express action, or make an affirmation ; but it 
merely names the action which I wish John to perform, and affirmation is 
the inferential meaning. 

i The verb in the infinitive, as well as in the imperative mood, is divested 
of its affirmative or verbal force. In both these moods, it is always presented 
in its noun- state. 
If, after dinner, I say to a servant " Wine? he infers, that I wish him to 



NOUNS AND VERBS.— PARSING. 49 

A noun in the possessive case, is always known by its hav- 
ing an apostrophe, and generally an s after it ; thus, John's 
hat ; the boy's coat. When a plural noun in the possessive 
case, ends in s, the apostrophe is added, but no additional s ; 
as, " Boys' hats; Eagles' wings." When a singular noun ends 
in ss, the apostrophe only is added ; as, " For goodness* sake ; 
for righteousness' sake ; except the word witness ; as, " The 
witness's testimony." When a noun in the possessive case 
ends in ence, the s is omitted, but the apostrophe is retained ; 
as, " For conscience' sake." 

Now please to turn back, and read over this and the prece- 
ding lecture three times, and endeavour, not only to under- 
stand, but, also, to remember, what you read. In reading, pro- 
ceed thus : read one sentence over slowly, and then look off 
the book, and repeat it two or three times over in your mind. 
After that, take another sentence and proceed in the same 
manner, and so on through the whole lecture. Do not pre- 
sume to think, that these directions are of no real consequence 
to you ; for, unless you follow them strictly, you need not ex- 
pect to make rapid progress. On the other hand, if you pro- 
ceed according to my instructions, you will be sure to acquire 
a practical knowledge of grammar in a short time. — When you 
shall have complied with this requisition, you may commit the 
following order of parsing a noun, and the order of parsing a 
verb ; and then you will be prepared to parse or analyze the 
following examples. 

ANALYSIS, OR PARSING. 

Do you recollect the meaning of the word analysis ? If you 
do not, I will explain it : and first, I wish you to remember, 
that analysis is the reverse of synthesis. Synthesis is the act 
of combining simples so as to form a whole or compound. 

bring me wine ; but all this is not said. If I say, Bring some loine, he, in 
like manner, understands, that I wish him to bring me wine ; but all that is 
expressed, is the name of the action, and of the object of the action. In fact, 
as much is done by inference, as by actual expression, in every branch of 
language, for thought is too quick to be wholly transmitted by words. 

It is generally conceded, that the terminations of our verbs, est, eth, s, ed, 
and, also, of the other parts of speech, were originally separate words of dis- 
tinct meaning: ; and that, although they have been contracted, and, by the 
refinement of language, have been made to coalesce with the words in con- 
nexion with which they are employed, yet, in their present character of ter- 
minations, they retain their primitive meaning and force. To denote that a 
verbal name was employed as a verb, the Saxons affixed to it a verbalizing 
adjunct ; ihusjke (to take, hold) wa<* the noun-state of the verb ; and when 
they used it as a verb, they added the termination an; thus, thea?i. The 
termination added, was a sign that affirmation was intended. The same 

f>rocedure has been adopted, and, in many instances, is still practised, in our 
anguage. %ftn, originally affixed to our verbs, in the progress of refinement, 

5 



50 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 



Urns, in putting together letters so as to form syllables, sylla- 
oles so as to form words, words so as to form sentences, and 
sentences so as to form a discourse, the process is called syn- 
thetick. Analysis, on the contrary, is the act of decomposition : 
that is, the act of separating any thing compounded into its 
simple parts, and thereby exhibiting its elementary principles. 
Etymology treats of the analysis of language. To analyze a 
sentence, is to separate from one another and classify the dif- 
ferent words of which it is composed ; and to analyze or parse 
a word, means to enumerate and describe all its various pro- 
perties, and its grammatical relations with respect to other 
words in a sentence, and trace it through all its inflections or 
changes. Perhaps, to you, this will, at first, appear to be of 
little importance ; but, if you persevere, you will hereafter find 
it of great utility, for parsing will enable you to detect, and 
correct, errours in composition. 

SYSTEMATICK ORDER OF PARSING. 

The order of parsing a Noun, is — a noun, and 
why ? — common, proper, or collective, and why ? 
gender, and why?— person, and why? — number, 
and why ? — case, and why ? — Rule : — decline it. 

The order of parsing a Verb, is — a verb, and 
why ? — active, passive, or neuter, and why ? — if 
active — transitive or intransitive, and why? — if 
passive — how is it formed? — regular, irregular, 
or defective, and why ? — mood, and why ? — tense, 
and why? — person and number, and why? — with 
what does it agree ? — Rule : — conjugate it. 

I will now parse two nouns according to the order, and, in 
so doing, by applying the definitions and rules, I shall answer 
all those questions given in the order.- If you have perfectly 

was changed to en, and finally dropped, A few centuries ago, the plural 
numoer of our verbs was denoted by the termination en; thus, they weren, they 
loven ; but, as these terminations do not supersede the necessity of express- 
ing the subject of affirmation, as is the case in the Latin and Greek verbs, 
they have been laid aside, as unnecessary excrescences. For the same 
reason, we might, without any disparagement to the language, dispense 
with the terminations of our verbs in the singular. 

In support of the position, that these terminations were once separate 
words, we can trace many of them to their origin. To denote the feminine 
gender of some nouns, we affix ess; as, heiress, instructress. Ess is a con- 
traction of the Hebrew noun essa, a female. Of our verbs, the termination 
est is a contraction of doest, eih, of doelh, s, of does. We say, thou dost or 



tfOUNS AND VERBS. PARSING. 51 

committed the order of parsing a noun and verb, you may pro- 
ceed with me ; but, recollect, you can not parse a verb infidl> 
until you shall have had a more complete explanation of it. 
John's hand trembles. 

John's is a noun, [because it is] the name of a person — 
proper, the name of an individual — masculine gender, it de- 
notes a male — third person, spoken of — singular number, it 
implies but one — and in the possessive case, it denotes pos- 
session — it is governed by the noun " hand," according to 

Rule 12. A noun or pronoun in the possessive case, is go- 
verned by the noun it possesses. 

Declined — Sing. nom. John, poss. John's, obj. John. Plu- 
ral — nom. Johns, poss. Johns', obj. Johns. 

Hand is a noun, the name of a thing — common, the name 
of a sort or species of things — neuter gender, it denotes a thing 
without sex — third person, spoken of — sing, number, it implies 
but one — and in the nominative case, it is the actor and subject 
of the verb " trembles," and governs it agreeably to 

Rule 3. Tlie nominative case governs the verb : — that is, 
the nominative determines the number and person of the verb. 

Declined — Sing. nom. hand, poss. hand's, obj, hand. Plurv 
nom. hands, poss. hands', obj. hands. 

Trembles is a verb, a word which signifies to do — active, it 
expresses action — third person, singular number, because the 
nominative " hand" is with which it agrees, according to 

Rule 4. The verb must agree with its nominative in num- 
ber and person. 

You must not say that the verb is of the third person be- 
cause it is spoken of. The ve^-b is never spoken of; but it is 
of the third person, and singular or plural number, because its 
nominative is. 

Conjugated— First pers. sing. I tremble, 2 pers. thou trem- 
blest, 3 pers. he trembles, or, the hand trembles. Plural, 1 
pers* we tremble, 2 pers. ye or you tremble, 3 pers. they or 
the hands tremble. 



doesi love ; or thou lovest ; i. e. love-dost, or love-doest. Some believe these 
terminations to be contractions of havest, haveth, has. We affix ed, a con- 
traction of dede, to the present tense of verbs to denote that the action nam- 
ed, is, dede, did, doed, or done. 

To and do, from theGothick noun t aui, signifying act. or effect, are, accord- 
ing to Home Tooke, nearly alike in meaning and force ; and when the cus- 
tom of affixing some more ancient verbalizing adjunct, began to be dropped 
its place and meaning were generally supplied by prefixing one of these' 
when I say, "I am going to walk,'" the verbal or affirmative force is convey- 
ed by the use of to, meaning the same as do; and WuJc is employed merely 



52 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 

Government, in language, consists in the pow- 
er which one word has over another, in causing 
that other word to be in some particular case, 
number, person, mood, or tense. 

ILLUSTRATION. 

Rule 3. Tlie nominative case governs the verb. 

If you employ the pronoun J, which is of the first person, 
singular number, as the nominative to a verb, the verb must 
be of the first pers. sing, thus, I smile ; and when your nomina- 
tive is second pers. sing, your verb must be ; as, thou smilesf. 
Why, in the latter instance, does the ending of the verb change 
to est ? Because the nominative changes. And if your nomi- 
native is third person, the verb will vary again ; thus, he smiles, 
the man smiles. How clear it is, then, that the nominative, 
governs the verb ; that is, the nominative has power to change 
the form and meaning of the verb, in respect to num. and per 
son. Government, thus far, is evinced in the form of the 
words, as well as in the sense. 

Rule 4. The verb must agree with its nominative in num- 
ber and person. 

It is improper to say, thou hear, the men hears. Why im 
proper 1 Because hear is first pers. and the nominative thou 
is second pers. hears is singular, and the nom. men is plural. 
Rule 4th says, The verb must agree with its nominative. The 
expressions should, therefore, be, thou hearesf, the men hear ; 
and then the verb would agree with its nominatives. But why 
must the verb agree with its nominative 1 Why must we say, 
thou talked, the man talks, men talk ? Because the genius of 
our language, and the common consent of those who speak it, 
require such a construction : and this requisition amounts to a 
law or rule. This ride, then, is founded in the nature of things^ 
and sanctioned by good usage. 

Rule 12. A noun or pronoun in the possessive case, is go- 
verned by the noun which it possesses. 

It is correct to say, The man eats, he eats ; but we cannot 
say, The man dog eats, he dog eats. Why not ? Because the 

a7a verbal name ; that is, I assert that I shall do the act which I name by 
the word walk, or the act of waging. 

Perhaps such speculations as these will prove to be more curious than 
profitable. If it be made clearly to appear, that, on scientifick principles, 
whenever the verbal name is unaccompanied by a verbalizing adjunct, it is 
in the noun-state, and does not express affirmation, still this theory would 
be very inconvenient in practice. 

I shall resume this subject in Lecture XI. 



NOUNS AND VERBS. PARSING. 53 

man is here represented as the possessor, and dog, the property, 
or thing possessed ; and the genius of our language requires, 
that when we add to the possessor, the thing which he is re- 
presented as possessing, the possessor shall take a particular 
form to show its case, or relation to the property ; thus, The 
man's dog eats, his dog eats. You perceive, then, that the 
added noun, denoting the thing possessed, has power to change 
the form of the noun or pronoun denoting the possessor, ac- 
cording to Rule 12 ; thus, by adding dog, in the preceding ex- 
amples, man is changed to man's, and he, to his. 

Now parse the sentence which I have parsed, until the man- 
ner is quite familiar to you ; and then you will be prepared to 
analyze correctly and systematically, the following exercises. 
When you parse, you may spread the Compendium before 
you ; and, if you have not already committed the definitions 
and rules, you may read them on that, as you apply them. 
This mode of procedure will enable you to learn all the defini- 
tions and rules by applying them to practice. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

Rain descends — Rams descend — Snow falls — -Snows fall — 

Thunder rolls — Thunders roll — Man's works decay Men's 

labours cease — John's dog barks — Eliza's voice trembles- 
Julia's sister's child improves — Peter's cousin's horse limps. 

In the next place, I will parse a noun and a neuter verb, 
which verb, you will notice, differs from an active "only in one 
respect. 

" Birds repose on the branches of trees." 

Birds is a noun, the name of a thing or creature — common, 
the name of a genus or class — masculine and feminine gen- 
der, it denotes both males and females — third person, spoken 
of — plural number, it implies more than one — and in the no- 
minative case, it is the subject of the verb " repose," and go- 
verns it according to R,ule 3. The nom. case governs the 
verb. Declined — Sing. nom. bird, poss. bird's, obj. bird. 
Plural, nom. birds, poss. birds', obj. birds. 

Repose is a verb, a word that signifies to be — neuter, it ex- 
presses neither action nor passion, but a state of being third 

person, plural number, because the nominative " birds" is 
with which it agrees, agreeably to Rule 4. The verb must 
agree ivith its nominative in number and person. 

Declined — 1st pers. sing. I repose, 2d pers. thou reposest, 
3d pers. he reposes, or the bird reposes. Plur. 1st pers. we 
repose, 2d pers. ye or you repose, 3d pers. they repose, or 
birds repose. 5* 



54 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 

Now parse those nouns and neuter verbs that are distin 
guished by italicks, in the following 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

The book lies on the desk — The cloak hangs on the wall 

Man's days are few — Cathmor's warriours sleep in death 

Clatho reposes in the narrow house — Jocund day stands tiptoe 
on the misty mountain tops. The sunbeams rest on the grave 
where her beauty sleeps. 

You may parse, these and the preceding exercises, and all 
that follow, five or six times over, if you please. 

OBJECTIVE CASE.— ACTIVE-TRANSITIYE VERBS. 
The objective case expresses the object of an 
action or of a relation. It generally follows a 
transitive verb, a participle, or a preposition. 

A noun is irrthe objective case when it is the object of some- 
thing. At present I shall explain this case only as the object 
of an action ; but when we shall have advanced as far as to the 
preposition, I will also illustrate it as the object of a relation. 

An active verb is transitive when the action 
passes over from the subject or nominative to an 
object ; as, Richard strikes John. 

Transitive means passing. In this sentence the action oi 
the verb strikes is transitive, because it passes over from the 
nominative Richard to the object John ; and you know that tho 
noun John is in the objective case, because it is the object of the 
action expressed by the active-transitive verb strikes. This 
matter is very plain. For example : Gallileo invented the tel- 
escope. Now it is evident, that Gallileo did not exert his pow- 
ers of invention, without some object in view. In order to as- 
certain that object, put the question, Gallileo invented what 1 
The telescope. Telescope, then, is the real object of the ac- 
tion, denoted by the transitive verb invented ; and, therefore, 
telescope is in the objective case. If I say, The horse kicks 
the servant — Carpenters build houses — Ossian wrote poems — 
Columbus discovered America— you readily perceive, that the 
verbs kicks, build, wrote, and discovered, express transitive ac- 
tions ; and you cannot be at a loss to tell which nouns are in the 
objective case : — they are servant, houses, poems, and America. 

The nominative and objective cases of nouns are generally 
known by the following rule : the nominative does something , 
the objective has something done to it. The nominative gene- 



VERBS. TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE. 55 

rally comes before the verb ; and the objective after it. When 
I say, George struck the servant, George is in the nominative, 
and servant is in the objective case ; but, when I say, The ser- 
vant struck George, servant is in the nominative case, and 
George is in the objective. Thus you perceive, that Case 
means the different state or situation of nouns with regard to 
other words. 

It is sometimes very difficult to tell the case of a noun. I 
shall, therefore, take up this subject again, when I come to give 
you an explanation of the participle and preposition. 

Besides the three cases already explained, nouns are some- 
times in the nominative case independent, sometimes in the 
nominative case absolute, sometimes in apposition in the same 
case, and sometimes in the nominative or objective case after 
the neuter verb to be, or after an active-intransitive or passive 
verb. These cases are illustrated in Lecture X. and in the 21st 
and 22d Rules of Syntax. 

ACTIVE-INTRANSITIVE VERBS. 

An active verb is transitive, when the action 
terminates on an object : but 

An active verb is intransitive, when the action 
does not terminate on an object ; as, John walks. 

You perceive that the verb walks, in this example, is in- 
transitive, because the action does not pass over to an object ; 
ihat is, the action is confined to the agent John. The follow- 
ing sign will generally enable you to distinguish a transitive 
verb from an intransitive. Any verb that will make sense with 
the words a thing, or a person, after it, is transitive. Try these 
verbs by the sign, love, help, conquer, reach, subdue, overcome. 
Thus, you can say, I love a person or thing — I can help a per- 
son or thing — and so on. Hence you know that these verbs 
are transitive. But an intransitive verb will not make sense 
with this sign, which fact will be shown by the following ex- 
amples : smile, go, come, play, bark, walk, fly. We cannot 
say, if we mean to speak English, I smile a person or thing — I 
go a person or thing : — hence you perceive that these verbs are 
not transitive, but intransitive. 

If you reflect upon these examples for a few moments, you 
will have a clear conception of the nature of transitive and in- 
transitive verbs. Before I close this subject, however, it is 
necessary further to remark, that some transitive and intransi- 
tive verbs express what is called a mental or moral action ; and 
others, a corporeal or physical action. Yerbs expressing th 



56 ETYMOLOGY ATTD SYNTAX. 

different affections or operations of the mind, denote moral ac- 
tions ; as, Brutus loved his country ; James hates vice ; We 
believe the tale :— to repent, to relent, to think, to reflect, to 
mourn, to muse. Those expressing the actions produced by- 
matter, denote physical actions ; as, The dog hears the bell ; 
Virgil wrote the iEnead ; Columbus discovered America ; — to 
see, to feel, to taste, to smell, to run, to talk, to fly, to strike. 
In the sentence, Charles resembles his father, the verb resembles 
does not appear to express any action at all ; yet the construc- 
tion of the sentence, and the office which the verb performs, 
are such, that we are obliged to parse it as an active-transitive 
verb, governing the noun father in the objective case. This 
you may easily reconcile in your mind, by reflecting, that the 
verb has a direct reference to its object. The following verbs 
are of this character : Have, own, retain ; as, I have a book. 

Active intransitive verbs are frequently made transitive. 
When I say, The birds fly, the verb fly, is intransitive ; but 
when I say, The boy flies the kite, the verb j% is transitive, and 
governs the noun kite in the objective case. Almost any ac- 
tive intransitive verb, and sometimes even neuter verbs, are 
used as transitive. The horse walks rapidly ; The boy runs 
swiftly ; My friend lives well ; The man died of a fever. In 
all these examples the verbs are intransitive ; in the following 
they are transitive : The man walks his horse ; The boy ran 
a race ; My friend lives a holy life ; Let me die the death of 
the righteous. 

The foregoing development of the character of verbs, is 
deemed sufficiently critical for practical purposes ; but if we 
dip a little deeper into the verbal fountain, we shall discover 
qualities which do not appear on its surface. If we throw aside 
the veil which art has drawn over the real structure of speech, 
we shall find, that almost every verb has either a personal or a 
verbal object, expressed or implied. Yerbal objects, which are 
the effects or productions resulting from the actions, being ne- 
cessarily implied, are seldom expressed. 

The fire burns. If the fire burns, it must burn wood, coal, 
tallow, or some other combustible substance. The man laughs. 
Laughs what ] Laughs laughter or laugh. They walk ; that is, 
They walk or take walks. Rivers flow (move or roll themselves 
or their waters) into the ocean. 

" I sing the shady regions of the west." 

" And smile the wrinkles from the brow of age." 

The child wept itself sick ; and then, by taking (or sleeping) 
a short nap, it slept itself quiet and well again. " He will soon 



NOUNS AND VERBS. PARSING. 57 

sleep his everlasting sleep ;" that is, " He will sleep the sleep of 
death." 

Thinkers think thoughts ; Talkers talk or employ tvords, talk, 
or speeches ; The rain rains rain. " Upon Sodom and Gomor- 
rah the Lord rained fire and brimstone." " I must go the whole 
length." I shall soon go the way of all the earth." 

Now please to turn back again, and peruse this lecture at- 
tentively ; after which you may parse, systematically, the fol- 
lowing exercises containing nouns in the three cases, and act- 
ive-transitive verbs. 

The printer prints books. 

Prints is a verb, a word that signifies to do — active, it ex 
presses action — transitive, the action passes over from the 
nominative " printer" to the object " books" — third pers. sing 
numb, because the nominative printer is with which it agrees. 
Rule 4. The verb must agree with its nominative case in num 
ber and person. 

Declined — 1. pers. sing. I print, 2. pers. thou printest, 3. 
pers. he prints, or the printer prints, and so on* 

Books is a noun, the name of a thing — common, the name 
of a sort of things, neut. gend. it denotes a thing without sex 
— third pers. spoken of — plur. num. it implies more than one 
— and in the objective case, it is the object of the action, ex- 
pressed by the active-transitive verb " prints," and is governed 
by it according to 

Rule 20. Active-transitive verbs govern the objective case. 

The noun books is thus declined — Sing. nom. book, poss. 
book's, obj. book — Plur. nom. books, poss. books', obj. books. 

Rule 20. Transitive verbs govern the objective case ; that 
is, they require the noun or pronoun following them to be in 
that case ; and this requisition is government. Pronouns have 
a particular form to suit each case ; but nouns have not. We 
cannot say, She struck he ; I gave the book to they. Why 
not 1 Because the genius of our language reouires the pro- 
noun following a transitive verb or preposition (to is a preposi- 
tion) to assume that form which we call the objective form or 
case. Accordingly, the construction should be, She struck 
him ; I gave the book to them. — Read, again, the illustration 
of " government" on page 52. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

Nom. case. Trans, verb. Poss. case. Obj. case. 

Julius prints children's primers. ~ 

Harriet makes ladies' bonnets. 

The servant beats the man's horse. 



58 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 



Nom. case. 


Trans, verb. 


Poss. case. 


Obj. case. 


The horse 


kicks 


the servant's 


master. 


The boy 


struck 


that man's 


child. 


The child 


lost 


those boys' 


ball. 


The tempest 


sunk 


those merchants 


' vessels. 


The gale 


sweeps 


the mountain's 


brow. 


Pope 


translated 


Homer's 


Illiado 


Cicero 


procured 


Milo's 


release. 


Alexander 


conquered 


Darius' 


army. 


Perry 


met 


the enemy's 


fleet. 


Washington 


obtained 


his country's 


freedom. 



Note 1. The words the, that, those, and his, you need not parse. 
2. A noun in the possessive case, is sometimes governed by a noun un- 
derstood ; as, Julia's lesson is longer than John's [lesson.] 

As you have been analyzing nouns in their three cases, it be- 
comes necessary to present, in the next place, the declension 
of nouns, for you must decline every noun you parse. Declen- 
sion means putting a noun through the different cases : and you 
will notice, that the possessive case varies from the nominative 
in its termination, or ending, but the objective case ends like the 
nominative. The nominative and objective cases of nouns, 
must, therefore, be ascertained by their situation in a sentence, 
or by considering the office they perform. 

DECLENSION OF NOUNS. 

SING. PLUR. SING. PLUR. 

Nom. king kings JVcwn. man men 

Poss. king's kings' Poss. man's men's. 

Obj. king. Ttings. Obj. man. men. 

Now, if you have parsed every word in the preceding exam 
pies, (except the, that, those, and his,) you may proceed with me, 
and parse the examples in the following exercises, in which are 
presented nouns and active-intransitive verbs. 
" My jiock increases yearly." 

Flock is a noun, a name denoting animals — a noun of multi- 
tude, it signifies many in one collective body — masculine and 
feminine gender, denoting both sexes— third person, spoken of 
— singular number, it denotes but one flock — and in the nomi- 
native case, it is the active agent of the verb "increases," and 
governs it, according to Rule 3. TJie nominative case governs 
the verb. (Decline it.) 

Increases is a verb, a word that signifies to do — active, it ex- 
presses action — intransitive, the action does not pass over to an 
object — of the third person, singular number, because its nomi- 



NOUNS AND VERBS. PARSING. 59 

native " flock" conveys unity of idea ; and it agrees with 
" flock " agreeably to 

Rule 10. A noun of multitude conveying unity of idea, must 
have a verb or pronoun agreeing with it in the singular. 
" The divided multitude hastily disperse." 
Multitude is a noun, a name that denotes persons — a collec- 
tive noun, or noun of multitude, it signifies many — masculine 
and feminine gender, it implies both sexes — third person, spo- 
ken of — singular number, it represents but one multitude, or 
collective body ; (but in another sense, it is plural, as it con- 
veys plurality of idea, and, also, implies more individuals than 
one ;) — and in the nominative case, it is the actor and subject 
of the verb " disperse," which it governs, according to Rule 3. 
The nom. case governs the verb. — Declined. — Sing. nom. multi- 
tude, poss. multitude's, obj. multitude — Plur. nom. multitudes, 
poss. multitudes', obj. multitudes. 

Disperse is a verb, a word that signifies to do — active, it ex- 
presses action — intransitive, the action does not terminate on an 
object — -third person, plural number, because its nominative 
" multitude" conveys plurality of idea ; and it agrees with 
" multitude" agreeably to 

Rule 11. JL noun of multitude conveying plurality of idea, 
must have a verb or pronoun agreeing ivithit in the plural. 

Rules 10, and 11, rest on a sandy foundation. They appear 
not to be based on the principles of the language ; and, there- 
fore, it might, perhaps, be better to reject than to retain them. 
Their application is quite limited. In many instances, they will 
not apply to nouns of multitude. The existence of such a thing 
as "unity or plurality of idea," as applicable to nouns of this 
class, is doubtful. It is just as correct to say, " The meeting 
was divided in its sentiments," -as to say, " The meeting were 
divided in their sentiments." Both are equally supported by 
the genius of the language, and by the power of custom. It is 
correct to say, either that, " The fleet were dispersed ;" " The 
council were unanimous ;" " The council were divided ;" or that, 
" The fleet was dispersed ;" " The council was unanimous ;" 
" The council was divided." But, perhaps for the sake ©i 
euphony, in some instances, custom has decided m favour of a 
singular, and in others, of a plural construction, connected with 
words of this class. For example ; custom gives a preference 
to the constructions, * My people do not consider ;" " The peas- 
antry go barefoot ;" " The flock is his object ;" instead of, 
" My people doth not consider ;" " The peasantry goes bare- 
foot ;" " The flock are his object." In instances like these, 
the application of the foregoing rules may be of some use ; but 



CO 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 



the constructions in which they do not apply, are probably more 
numerous than those in which they do. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

JYom. case. Intran. verb. JYom. case. Intran. verb. 
Men labour. The sun sets. 

Armies march. The moon rises. 

Vessels sail. The stars twinkle. 

J*!" 18 , %• The rain descends 

Clouds move. The river flows. 

Multitudes perjsh. The nation mourns. 

Your improvement in grammar depends, not on the number 
of words which you parse, but on the attention which you give 
the subject. You may parse the same exercises several times over. 

For the gratification of those who prefer it, I here present 
another 

DIVISION OF VERBS. 

Verbs are of two kinds, transitive and intransitive. 

A verb is transitive when the action affects an object ; as, 
" Earthquakes rock kingdoms ; thrones and palaces are shaken 
down ; and potentates, princes, and subjects,arc buried in one 
common grave." 

The nominative to a passive verb, is the object, but not the agent of the 
action. 

A verb is intransitive when it has no object ; as, " The waters 
came upon me;" "I am he who was, and is, and is to come." 

As an exercise on what you have been studying, I will now 
put to you a few questions, all of which you ought to be able to 
answer before you proceed any farther. 

QUESTIONS NOT ANSWERED IN PARSING. 

With what two general divisions of grammar does the second 
lecture begin ] — Of what does Etymology treat 1 — Of what does 
Syntax treat ? — On what is based the true principle of classifi- 
cation V- How do you ascertain the part of speech to which a 
word belongs ? — What is meant by its manner of meaning ] — 
Name the ten parts of speech. — Which of these are considered 
the most important 1 — By what sign may a noun be distinguish- 
ed ? — How many kinds of nouns are there 1 — What belong to 
nouns 1 — What is gender ? — -How many genders have nouns ? 
— What is person ? — How many persons have nouns 1 — What 
is number ? — How many numbers have nouns ? — What is case ? 
— How many cases have nouns ? — Does case consist in the &•- 
Hections of a noun 1 — How many kinds of verbs are there 1 — By 
what sign may a verb be known ] — What belong to verbs ?— * 



NOUNS AND VERBS. — PARSING. 61 

What is synthesis?— What is analysis? — What is parsing? — Re- 
peat the order of parsing the noun. — Repeat the order of parsing 
the verb. — What rule do you apply in parsing a noun in the pos- 
sessive case ? — What rule, in parsing a noun in the nominative 
case ? — What rule applies in parsing a verb ? — What is meant 
by government? — Explain rules 3, 4, and 12. — By what rule 
are the nominative and objective cases of nouns known? — By 
what sign can you distinguish a transitive from an intransitive 
verb ? — Do transitive verbs ever express a moral action ? — Are 
intransitive and neuter verbs ever used as transitive? — Give 
some examples of transitive verbs with personal and verbal ob- 
jects. — What rule do you apply in parsing a noun in the objec- 
tive case ? — Explain rule 20. — In parsing a verb agreeing with 
a noun of multitude conveying plurality of idea, what rule do 
you apply ? 

QUESTIONS ON THE NOTES. 

Whether the learner be required to answer the following questions, or not, 
is, of course, left discretionary with the teacher. The author takes the liberty 
to suggest the expediency of not, generally, enforcing such a requisition, un- 
til the pupil goes through the book a second time. 

Name some participial nouns. — What are abstract nouns ? — What is tho 
distinction between abstract nouns and adjectives ? — What are natural 
nouns ? — Artificial nouns ? — What is the distinction between material and 
immaterial nouns ? — Are nouns ever of the masculine and feminine gender?— 
Give examples. — When are nouns, naturally neuter, converted into the mas 
culine or feminine gender? — Give examples. — Speak some nouns that aro 
always in the singular number. — Some that are always plural. — Speak som« 
that are in the same form in both numbers.- — Name all the various ways ot 
forming the plural number of nouns. — Of what number are the nouns news, 
means, alms, and amends ? — Name the plurals to the following compound 
nouns, handful, cupful, spoonfid, brother-in-laiv, court-martial. 

QUESTIONS ON THE PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES. 

What has usually been the object of philosophical investigations of lan- 
guage? (page 32.) — Do the syntactical dependencies and connexions of 
words depend on their original import ? — Is the power of association and 
custom efficient in changing the radical meaning of some words ? — Have 
words intrinsically a signification of their own ; or is their meaning inferen- 
tial ; i. e. such as custom has assigned to them ? (page 38.) — On what fact 
is based the true, philosophical principle of classification ? — Define philoso- 
phical grammar. — Which is supposed to be the original part of speech ? — 
How were the others formed from that ? — How many parts of speech may 
be recognized in a scientifick development and arrangement of the princi- 
ples of our language? — Name them. — What testimony have we that many 
things do not act ? (page 43.) — Repeat some of the arguments in favour of, 
and against, the principle which regards all verbs as active. — In what moods 
are verbs used in their noun-state ? (page 48.) — Give examples. — What is said 
of the terminations, est, eth. s, and en, and of the words to and do ? 

REMARKS ON VERBS AND NOUNS, 

You have already been informed, that verbs are the most important part 
of speech in our language ; and to convince you of their importance, I now 
ted vou, that you cannot express a thought, or communicate an idea, without 

6 



62 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 

making use of a verb, either expressed or implied. Verbs express, not only 
the state or manner of being, but, likewise, all the different actions and move- 
ments of all creatures and things, whether animate or inanimate. As yet I 
have given you only a partial description of this sort of words ; but when 
you are better prepared to comprehend the subject, I will explain all their 
properties, and show you the proper manner of using them. 

A word that is generally a noun, sometimes becomes a. verb; and a verb 
is frequently used as a noun. These changes depend on the sense which 
the word conveys ; or, rather, on the office it performs in the sentence ; that 
is, the manner in which it is applied to things. For instance ; glory is gene- 
rally a noun ; as, " The glory of God's throne." But if I say, I glory in reli- 
gion ; or, He glories in wickedness, the word glory becomes a verb. The 
love of man is inconstant. In this sentence, love is a noun; in the next, it is 
& verb : They love virtue. He walks swiftly ; Scavengers sweep the streets ; 
The ship sails well. In these phrases, the words walks, sweeps, and sails, 
are verbs; in the following they are nouns : Those are pleasant walks; He= 
takes a broad sweep ; The ship lowered her sails. 

Thus you see, it is impossible for you to become a gram- 
marian without exercising your judgment. If you have suffi- 
cient resolution to do this, you will, in a short time, perfectly 
understand the nature and office of the different parts of speech, 
their various properties and relations, and the rules of syntax 
that apply to them ; and, in a few weeks, be able to speak and 
write accurately. But you must not take things for granted, 
without examining their propriety and correctness. No. You 
are not a mere automaton, or boy-machine ; but a rational being. 
Sou ought, therefore, to think methodically, to reason soundly, 
and to investigate every principle critically. Don't be afraid 
to think for yourself. You know not the high destiny that 
awaits you. You know not the height to which you may soar 
in the scale of intellectual existence. Go on, then, boldly, 
and with unyielding perseverance ; and if you do not gain ad- 
mittance into the temple of fame, strive, at all hazards, to 
drink of the fountain which gurgles from its base. 

EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX. 

Note 1, to Rule 12. A noun in the possessive case, 
should always be distinguished by the apostrophe, or mark of 
elision ; as, The nation's glory. 

That girls book is cleaner than those boys books. 

Not correct, because the nouns girls and boys are both in the possessive 
case, and, therefore, require the apostrophe, by which they should be dis- 
tinguished; thus, "girVs, boys'," according to the preceding Note. [Re- 
peat the note.] 

Thy ancestors virtue is not thine. 

If the writer of this sentence meant one ancestor, he should have inserted 
the apostrophe after r, thus, " ancestor's;" if more than one, after s, thus, 
" ancestors' virtue j" but, by neglecting to place the apostrophe, he has left 



NOUNS AND VERBS. FALSE SYNTAX. 63 

his meaning ambiguous, and we cannot ascertain it. This, and a thousand 
other mistakes you will often meet with, demonstrate the truth of my de- 
claration, namely, that " without the knowledge and application of gram- 
mar rules, you will often speak and write in such a manner as not to be un- 
derstood." You may now turn back and re-examine the " illustration" of 
Rules 3, 4, and 12, on page 52, and then correct the following examples 
about Jive times over. 

A mothers tenderness and a fathers care, are natures gift's 
for mans advantage. Wisdoms precept's form the good mans 
interest and happiness. They suffer for conscience's sake. 
He is reading Cowpers poems. James bought Johnsons Dic- 
tionary. 

Rule 4. A verb must agree with its nominative in number 
and person. 

Those boys improves rapidly. The men labours in the field. 
Nothing delight some persons. Thou shuns the light. He 
dare not do it. They reads well. 

I know you can correct these sentences without a rule, for they all have 
a harsh sound, which offends the ear. I wish you, however, to adopt the 
kabit of correcting errours by applying rules ; for, by-and-by, you will meet 
with errours in composition which you cannot correct, if you are ignorant of 
the application of grammar rules. 

Now let us clearly understand this 4th Rule. Recollect, it applies to the 
verb, and not to the noun ; therefore, in these examples the verb is ungram- 
matical. The noun boys, in the first sentence, is of the third person plural- 
and the verb improves is of the third person singular; therefore, Rule 4th is 
violated, because the verb does not agree with its nominative in number. It 
should be, " boys improve." The verb would then be plural, and agree with 
Its nominative according to the Rule. In the fourth sentence, the verb does 
not agree in person with its nominative. Thou is of the second person, and 
shuns is of the third. It should be, " thou shunnest," fyc. You may correct 
the other sentences, and, likewise, the following exercises in 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

A variety of pleasing objects charm the eye. The number 
of inhabitants of the United States exceed nine millions. Noth- 
ing but vain and foolish pursuits delight some persons. 

In vain our flocks and fields increase our store, 
When our abundance make us wish for more. 

While ever and anon, there falls 
Huge heaps of hoary, moulder'd walls 



64 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX 

LECTURE III. 

OF ARTICLES. 

An article is a word prefixed to nouns to Jimit 
their signification / as, a man, the woman. 

There are only two articles, a or an, and the. 
Jl or an is called the indefinite article. The is 
called the definite article. 

The indefinite article limits the noun to one of a 
kind, but to no particular one ; as, a house. 

The definite article generally limits the noun to 
a particular object, or collection of objects ; as, the 
house, the men. 

The small claims of the article to a separate rank as a dis- 
tinct part of speech, ought not to be adnritted in a scientifick 
classification of words. A and the, this and that, ten, few, and 
fourth, and many other words, are used to restrict, vary, or de- 
fine the signification of the nouns to which they are joined. 
They might, therefore, with propriety, be ranked under the ge- 
neral head of Restrictives, Indexes, or Defining Adjectives. But, 
as there is a marked distinction in their particular meaning and 
application, each class requires a separate explanation. Hence, 
no practical advantage would be gained, by rejecting their es- 
tablished classification as articles, numerals, and demonstra- 
tives, and by giving them new names. The character and 
application of a and the can be learned as soon when they are 
styled articles, as when they are denominated specifying or de~ 
fining adjectives* 

The history of this part of speech is very brief. As there are 
but two articles, a v^r an and the, you will know them wherever 
they occur. 

A noun used without an article, or any other restrictive, is 
taken in its general sense ; as, " Fruit is abundant ;" " Gold is 
heavy ;" " JWan is born to trouble." Here we mean, fruit and 
gold in general ; and all men, or mankind. 

When we wish to limit the meaning of the noun to one object, 
but to no particular one, we employ a or an. If I say, " Give 
me a pen ;" " Bring me an apple ;" you are at liberty to fetch 
any pen or any apple you please. A or an, then, is indefinite, 
because it leaves the meaning of the noun to which it is applied, 



OF ARTICLES 65 

as far as regards the person spoken to, vague, or indeterminate • 
that is, not definite. But when reference is made to a particular 
object, we employ the ; as, " Give me the pen ;" " Bring me the 
apple, or the apples." When such a requisition is made, you 
are not at liberty to bring any pen or apple you please, but you 
must fetch the particular pen or apple to which you know me to 
refer. The is, therefore, called the definite article. 

" A star appears." Here, the star referred to, may be known 
as a particular star, definite, and distinguished from all others, 
in the mind of the speaker ; but to the hearer, it is left, among 
the thousands that bedeck the vault of heaven, undistinguished 
and indefinite. But when &e star has previously been made the 
subject of discourse, it becomes, in the minds of both speaker 
and hearer, a definite object, and he says, " The star appears ;" 
that is, that particular star about which we were discoursing. 

" Solomon built a temple." Did he build any temple, unde- 
termined which ? No ; it was a particular temple, pre-eminently 
distinguished from all others. But how does it become a defi- 
nite object in the mind of the hearer ? Certainly, not by the 
phrase, " a temple," which indicates any temple, leaving it al- 
together undetermined which ; but supposing the person addres- 
sed was totally unacquainted with the fact asserted, and it 
becomes to him, in one respect only, a definite and particular 
temple, by means of the associated words, " Solomon buili;" 
that is, by the use of these words in connexion with the others, 
the hearer gets the idea of a temple distinguished as the one 
erected by Solomon. If the speaker were addressing one whom 
he supposed to be unacquainted with the fact related, he might 
make the temple referred to a still more definite object in the 
mind of the hearer by a further explanation of it ; thus, " Solomon 
built a temple on mount Zion ; and that was the temple to which 
the Jews resorted to worship." 

" The lunatick, the poet, and the lover, 
11 Are of imagination all compact." 

PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES. 
A, AN, THE. 

In a scientifick arrangement of grammatical principles, a and the belong 
to that class of adjectives denominated definitives or restrictives. 

•fl, an, arte, or one, is the past participle of ananad, to add, to join. It de- 
notes that the thing to which it is prefixed, is added, united, aned, an-d, oned, 
(woned,) or made one. 

The and that. According to Home Tooke, the is the imperative, and that, 
the past participle, of the Anglo-Saxon vej*b thean, to get, take, assume. The 
and that had, originally, the same meaning. The difference in their present 
application, is a modern refinement. Hence, that, as well as the, was for- 
merly used, indifferently, before either a singular or a plural noun. 

6* 



66 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 



ture •' * 



" The horse is a noble animal ;" " The dog is a faithful crea- 
re ;" i< The wind blows ;" « The wolves were howling in the 
woods." In these examples, we do not refer to any particular 
lunaticks, poets, lovers, horses, dogs, winds, wolves, and woods, 
but we refer to these particular classes of things, in contradis- 
tinction to other objects' or classes. The phras°e, " Neither the 
one nor the other/' is an idiom of the language. 

Remarks —This method of elucidating the articles, which is popular with 
Blair, Pnestley, Lowth, Johnson, Harris, Beattie, Coote, Murray, and many 
other distinguished philologists, is discarded by some of our modern writers. 
But, by proving that this theory is exceptionable, they by no means make it 
appear, that it ought, therefore, to be rejected. 

Exceptionable or not, they have not been able to supply its place with one 
that is more convenient in practice. Neither have they adopted one less ex- 
ceptionable. The truth is, after all which can be done to render the defini- 
tions and rules of grammar comprehensive and accurate, they will still be 
found, when critically examined by men of learning and science, more or less 
exceptionable. These exceptions and imperfections are the unavoidable 
consequence of the imperfections of the language. Language, as well as 
every thing else of human invention, will always be imperfect. Consequently, 
a perfect system of grammatical principles, would not suit it. A perfect 
grammar will not be produced, until some perfect being writes it for a per- 
fect language ; and a perfect language will not be constructed, until some 
super-human agency is employed in its production. All grammatical prin- 
ciples and systems which are not perfect, are exceptionable. 

NOTES. 

1. The article is omitted before nouns implying the different virtues, vices, 
passions, qualities, sciences, arts, metals, herbs, &c.j as, "Modesty is becom- 
ing ; Falsehood is odious ; Grammar is useful," &c. 

2. The article is not prefixed to proper nouns ; as, Barron killed Decatur; 
except by way of eminence, or for the sake of distinguishing a particular fa- 
mily, or when some noun is understood ; as, " He is not a Franklin ; He is 
a Lee, or of the family of the Lees ; We sailed down the (river) Missouri." 

3. An adjective is frequently placed between the article and the noun with 
which the article agrees ; as, " A good boy ; an industrious man." Some 
times the adjective precedes the article ; as, "As great a man as Alexander ; 

Such a shame." 

4. In referring to many individuals, when we wish to bring each separate- 
ly under consideration, the indefinite article is sometimes placed between 
the adjective many and a singular noun ; as, " Where many a rosebud rears 
its blushing head;" "Full many afloioer is born to blush unseen." 

5. The definite article the is frequently applied to adverbs in the compara- 
tive or superlative degree ; as, " The more I examine it, the better I like it ; 
I like this the least of any." 

You may proceed and parse the following articles, when you 
shall have committed this. 

SYSTEMATICK ORDER OF PARSING. 

The order of parsing an Article, is — an article, 
and why? — definite or indefinite, and why ? — with 
what noun does it agree ?— Rule. 



ARTICLES.— PARSING. 67 

" He is the son of a king." 

The is an article, a word prefixed to a noun to limit its signifi- 
cation — definite, it limits the noun to a particular object — it 
belongs to the noun " son," according to 

Rule 2. The definite article the belongs to nouns in the sin- 
gular* or plural number. 

A is an article, a word placed before a noun to limit its signi- 
fication — indefinite, it limits the noun to one of a kind, but to no 
particular one — it agrees with " king," agreeably to 

Rule 1. The article a or an agrees with nouns in the singular 
number only. 

Note. By considering the original meaning of this article, the propriety 
of Rule 1, will appear. A or an, (formerly written arte,) being equivalent to 
one, any one, or some one, cannot be prefixed to nouns in the plural number. 
There is, however, an exception to this rule. A is placed before a plural 
noun when any of the following adjectives come between the article and the 
noun : few, great many, dozen, hundred, thousand, million ; as, a few men, a 
thousand houses, fyc. 

After having parsed these articles several times over, please 
to read this third lecture three times. Then turn back, and ex- 
amine the second lecture critically, observing to parse every ex- 
ample according to the directions previously given, which will 
prepare you to parse systematically, all the articles, nouns, and 
verbs in these subsequent 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

A bird sings. An eagle flies. Mountains stand. The mul- 
titude pursue pleasure. The reaper reaps the farmer's grain. 
Farmers mow the grass. Farmers' boys spread the hay. The 
clerk sells the merchant's goods. An ostrich outruns an Arab's 
horse. Cecrops founded Athens. Gallileo invented the teles- 
cope. James Macpherson translated Ossian's poems. Sir 
Francis Drake circumnavigated the globe. Doctor Benjamin 
Franklin invented the lightning-rod. Washington Irving wrote 
the Sketch-Book. 

I will now offer a few remarks on the misapplication of the 
articles, which, with the exercise of your own discriminating 
powers, will enable you to use them with propriety. But, before 
you proceed, please to answer the following 

QUESTIONS NOT ANSWERED IN PARSING. 

How many articles are there? — In what sense is a noun taken, 
when it has no article to limit it ? — Repeat the order of parsing 
an article. — What rule applies in parsing the definite article 1 — 
What rule in parsing the indefinite ? 



68 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 

QUESTIONS ON THE NOTES. 

Before what nouns is the article omitted ? — Is the article the ever applied 
to adverbs ? — Give examples. — What is the meaning of a or an ? — When is 
a or an placed before a plural noun ? — From what are a, the, and that derived ? 

EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX. 

Note to Rule 1 . An is used before a vowel or silent h, 
and a before a consonant or u long, and also before the word 
one. 

It is not only disagreeable to the ear, but, according to this note, improper 
to say, a apple, a humble suppliant, an hero, an university, because the word 
apple begins with a vowel, and h is not sounded in the word humble, for 
which reasons a should be an in the first two examples; but, as the h is 
sounded in hero, and the u is long in university, a ought to be prefixed to 
these words : thus, an apple, an humble suppliant : a hero, a university. 
You may correct the following 

EXAMPLES. 

A enemy, a inkstand, a hour, an horse, an herald, an heart, 
an heathen, an union, a umbrella, an useful book, many an one. 
This is an hard saying. They met with an heavy loss. He 
would not give an hat for an horse. 

Note 1, to Rule 2. The articles are often properly omit- 
ted : when used they should be justly applied, according to their 
distinct character ; as, " Gold is corrupting ; The sea is green ; 
A lion is bold." It would be improper to say, The gold is cor- 
rupting ; Sea is green ; Lion is bold. 

The grass is good for horses, and the wheat for men. Grass 
is good for the horses, and wheat for the men. Grass looks 
well. Wheat is blighted. 

In the first of these, sentences, we are not speaking of any particular kind 
of grass or wheat, neither do we wish to limit the meaning to any particular 
crop or field of grass, or quantity of wheat ; but we are speaking of grass 
and wheat generally, therefore the article the should be omitted. In the se- 
cond sentence, we do not refer to any definite kind, quality, or number of 
horses or men ; but to horses and men generally ; that is, the terms are here 
used to denote whole species, therefore, the article should be omitted, and the 
sentence should be read thus, " Grass is good for horses, and wheat for men." 

In the third and fourth examples, we wish to limit our meaning to the 
crops of grass and wheat now on the ground, which, in contradistinction to 
the crops heretofore raised, are considered as particular objects ; therefore 
we should say, " The grass looks well ; The wheat is blighted." 

Note 2. When a noun is used in its general sense, the 

article should be omitted ; as, " Poetry is a pleasing art ;" 

" Oranges grow in New- Orleans." 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Corn in the garden, grows well ; but corn in the field, does 
not. How does the tobacco sell ? The tobacco is dear. How 
do you like the study of the grammar ? The grammar is a 



OF ADJECTIVES. 60 

pleasing study. A candid temper is proper for the man. 
World is wide. The man is mortal. And I persecuted this 
way unto the death. The earth, the air, the fire, and the water, 
are the four elements of the old philosophers. 



LECTURE IV. 

OF ADJECTIYES. 



An Adjective is a word added to a noun to 
express its quality or kind, or to restrict its 
meaning ; as, a good man, a bad man, a free 
man, an unfortunate man, one man, forty men. 

In the phrases, a good apple, a bad apple, a large apple, a 
small apple, a red apple, a ivhite apple, a green apple, a sweet 
apple, a sour apple, a bitter apple, a round apple, a hard apple, 
a soft apple,, a mellow apple, a. fair apple, a May apple, an early 
apple, a /a^e apple, a tomfer apple, a crafc apple, a thorn apple, a 
well-tasted apple, an ill-looking apple, a water-cored apple, you 
perceive that all those words in italicks are adjectives, because 
aach expresses some quality or property of the noun apple, or 
it shows what kind of an apple it is of which we are speaking. 

The distinction between a noun and an adjective is very clear. 
A noun is the name of a thing ; but an adjective denotes simply 
the quality or property of a thing. This is fine cloth. In this 
example, the difference between the word denoting the thinr, 
and that denoting the quality of it, is easily perceived. You 
certainly cannot be at a loss to know, that the word cloth ex- 
presses the name, and fine, the quality, of the thing; conse 
quently fine must be an adjective. If I say, He is a wise man, 
a prudent man, a wicked man, or an ungrateful man, the words 



PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES. 
ADNOUNS. 



Mnoun, or Mjechve , comes from the Latin, ad and jicio, to add to. 

nrl rr nS ^ rC *£ * SS ^ W °- ds added t0 nouns to var 7 their comprehension, 
ElUi e tei™ne-their wtenaion. Those which effect the former object, a£ 
called «(,«**«, or attribute.; and those which effect the latter, reiriekvJ. 
X^JaZ m r cases > easv to determine to which of these classes an adnoun 

aSveVl'T^ J*"? ^ «P«*» "mp* the fiuKfe of nouns" a™ 
adjectives ; and such as denote their situation or number, are restrictives. 
Adjectives were originally nouns or verbs. 



70 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 

in italicks are adjectives, because each expresses a quanty of 
the noun man. And, if I say, He is a tall man, a short man, a 
white man, a black man, or a persecuted man, the words, tally 
short, white, black, and persecuted, are also adjectives, because 
they tell what kind of a man he is of whom I am speaking, or 
they attribute to him some particular property. 

Some adjectives restrict or limit the signification of the nouns 
to which they are joined, and are, therefore, sometimes called 
definitives; as, one era, seven ages, the first man, the whole inass, 
no trouble, those men, that book, all regions. 

Other adjectives define or describe nouns, or do both ; as, fine 
silk, blue paper, a heavy shower, pure water, green mountains, 
bland breezes, gurgling rills, glass window, window glass, 
beaver hats, chip bonnets, blackberry ridge, Monroe garden, 
Juniata iron, Cincinnati steam-mill. 

Some adjectives are secondary, and qualify other adjectives ; 
as, pale red lining, dark blue silk, deep sea green sash, soft iron 
blooms, red hot iron plate. 

You will frequently find the adjective placed after the noun ; 
as, " Those men are tall ; A lion is bold ; The weather is calm ; 
The tree is three feet thick." 

Should you ever be at a loss to distinguish an adjective from 
the other parts of speech, the following sign will enable you to 
tell it. Any word that will make sense with the word thing ad- 
ded, or with any other noun following it, is an adjective ; as, a 
high thing, a low thing, a hot thing, a cold thing, an unfinished 
thing, a new-fashioned thing : — or, a pleasant prospect, a long- 
deserted dwelling, an American soldier, a Greek Testament. 
Are these words adjectives, distant, yonder, peaceful, longsided y 
double-headed ? A distant object or thing, yonder hill, fyc. 
They are ] They will make sense with a noun after them. — 
Adjectives sometimes become adverbs. This matter will be 

Some consider the adjective, in its present application, exactly equivalent 
to a noun connected to another noun by means of juxtaposition, of a prepo- 
sition, or of a corresponding flexion. " A golden cup," say they, " is the same 
as a gold cup, or a cup of gold." But this principle appears to be exception- 
able. "A cup of gold," may mean either a cup-full of gold, or a cup made of 
gold. "An oaken cask," signifies an oak cask, or a cask of oak; i. e. a cask 
made of oak ; but a beer cask, and a cask of beer, are two different things. A 
virtuous son ; a son of virtue. ^ 

The distinguishing charactcristick of the adjective, appears to consist in 
its both naming a quality, and attributing that quality to some object. , 

The terminations en, ed, and ig, (our modern y,) signifying give, add, join, 
denote that the names of qualities to which they are postfixed, are to be at- 
tributed to other nouns possessing such qualities : wood-en, wood-y. See 
page 37. 

Left is the past participle of the verb leave. Home Tooke defines right to 



ADJECTIVES, 71 

explained in Lecture VI. In parsing, you may generally know 
an adjective by its qualifying a noun or pronoun. 

Most words ending in ing are present participles. These are 
frequently used as adjectives ; therefore, most participles will 
make sense with the addition of the word thing, or any other 
noun, after them ; as, a pleasing thing, a moving spectacle, 
mouldering ruins. 

In the Latin language, and many others, adjectives, like nouns, 
have gender, number, and case ; but in the English language, 
they have neither gender, person, number, nor case. These 
properties belong to creatures and things, and not to their quali- 
ties ; therefore gender, person, number, and case, are the pro- 
perties of nouns, and not of adjectives. 

Adjectives are varied only to express the de- 
grees of comparison. They have three degrees 
of comparison, the Positive, the Comparative, 
and the Superlative. 

The positive degree expresses the quality of 
an object without any increase or diminution ; as, 
good, wise j great. 

The comparative degree increases or lessens 
the positive in signification; as, better, iviser, 
greater, less ivise. 

The superlative degree increases or lessens the 
positive to the highest or lowest degree ; as, best, 
ivisest, greatest, least vjise. 

be that which is ordered or directed. The right hand is that which your pa- 
rents and custom direct you to use in preference to the other. And when 
you employ that in preference, the other is the leaved, leaved, or left hand ; 
1. e. the one leaved or left. " The one shall be taken, and the other (leaved) 

" Own. Formerly, a man's own was what he worked for, own being a past 
participle of a verb signifying to work. 

Restrictives. Some restrictives, in modem times, are applied only to sin- 
gular nouns ; such as a or an, another, one, this, that, each, every, either. Others, 
only to plural nouns ; as, these, ihose, hvo, three, few, several, all. But most 
restrictives, like adjectives, are applied to both singular and plural nouns : 
first, second, last, the, former, latter, any, such, same, some, which, what. 

Numerals. All numeration was, doubtless, originally performed by the 
fingers ; for the number of the fingers is still the utmost extent of its signi- 
fication. Ten is the past participle of tynan, to close, to shut in. The hands 
tyned, tened, closed, or shut in, signified ten ; for there numeration closed. 
To denote a number greater than ten, we must begin again, ten and one, Un 
and two &c 



72 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 

COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 

M ore and most form the comparative and superlative degrees by increasing 
the positive ; and less and least, by diminishing it. 

Comparison by increasing the positive. 

JPos. Comp. Sup. 

great, greater, greatest, 

wise, wiser, wisest. 

h°ly> more holy, most holy, 

frugal, more frugal, most frugal. 

Comparison by diminishing the positive. 

Pos. Comp. Sup. 

wise, less wise, least wise, 

holy, less holy, , least holy, 

frugal, less frugal, least frugal. 

NUMERAL ADJECTIVES. 

Words used in counting, are called numeral 
adjectives of the cardinal kind ; as, one, two, 
three, four, twenty, fifty, &c. 

Words used in numbering, are called numeral 
adjectives of the ordinal kind ; as, first, second, 
third, fourth, twentieth, fiftieth, &c. 

Note. The words many, few, and several, as they always refer to an in- 
definite number, may be properly called numeral adjectives of the indefinite 
kind. 

NOTES. 

1. The simple word, or Positive, becomes the Comparative by adding r, 
or er ; and the Positive becomes the Superlative, by adding st, or est, to the 
end of it ; as, Pos. wise, Com. wiser, Sup. wisest; rich, richer, riches* ; bold, 
bolder, boldest The adverbs, mare and most, less and least, when placed be- 
fore the adjective, have the same effect ; as, Pos. wise, Com. more wise, Sup. 
most wise ; Pos. wise, Com. less wise, Sup. least wise. 

Twain, (twa-in, tiva-ain, tiua-ane) is a compound of two {twa, twae, twee, 
twi, two or dwp or duo) and one (ane, ain, an.) It signifies two units joined, 
united, aned, or oned. Twenty {twa-ane-ten) signifies two tens aned, oned, or 
united. Things separated into parcels of twenty each, are called scores. 
Score is the past participle of shear, to separate. 

The Ordinals are formed like abstract nouns in eth. Fifth, sixth, or tenth, 
is the number which jiv-eth, six-eth, ten-eth, or mak-eth up the number jive 9 
six, or ten. "*- - ^' r - 

Philosophical writers who limit our acceptation of words to that in which 
they were originally employed, and suppose that all the complicated, yet 
often definable, associations which the gradual progress of language and in- 
tellect has connected with words, are to be reduced to the standard of our 



ADJECTIVES. PARSING. ?3 

2. Monosyllables are generally compared by adding er and est; dissyllables, 
trisyllables, &c. by more and most; as, mild, milder, mildest; frugal, more 
frugal, most frugal ; virtuous, more virtuous, most virtuous. Dissyllables 
ending in y; as, happy, lovely ; and in le after a mute ; as, able, ample ; and 
dissyllables accented on the last syllable ; as, discreet, polite ; easily admit 
of er and est; a3, happier, happiest; politer, politest. Words of more than 
two syllables very seldom admit of these terminations. 

3. When the positive ends in d, or t, preceded by a single vowel, the con- 
sonant is doubled in forming the comparative and superlative degrees ; as, 
red, redder, reddest ; hot, hotter, hottest. 

4. In some words the superlative is formed by adding most to the end of 
them ; as, nethermost, uttermost or utmost, undermost, uppermost, fore- 
most. 

5. In English, as in most languages, there are some words of very common 
use, (in which the caprice of custom is apt to get the better of analogy,) that 
are irregular in forming the degrees of comparison ; as, " Good, better, best ; 
bad, worse, worst ; little, less, least ; much or many, more, most ; near, 
nearer, nearest or next ; late, later, latest or last j old, older or elder, oldest 
or eldest ;" and a few others. 

6. The following adjectives, and many others, are always in the superla- 
tive degree, because, by expressing a quality in the highest degree, they car- 
ry in themselves a superlative signification : chief, extreme, perfect, right, 
wrong, honest, just, true, correct, sincere, vast, immense, ceaseless, infinite, end- 
less, unparalleled, universal, supreme, unlimited, omnipotent, all-wise, eternal, 

7. Compound adjectives, and adjectives denoting qualities arising from 
the figure of bodies, do not admit of comparison ; such as, well-formed, frost- 
bitten, round, square, oblong, circular, quadrangidar, conical, fyc. 

8. The termination ish added to adjectives, expresses a slight degree of 
quality below the comparative ; as, black, blackish; salt, saltish. Very, pre- 
fixed to the comparative, expresses a degree of quality, but not always a su- 
perlative degree. - 

Read this Lecture carefully, particularly the Notes ; after 
which you may parse the following adjectives and neuter verb, 
and, likewise, the examples that follow. If you cannot repeat 
all the definitions and rules, spread the Compendium when you 
parse. But before you proceed, please to commit the 

SYSTEMATICK ORDER OF PARSING. 

The order of parsing an Adjective, is — an 
adjective, and why? — compare it — degree of 
comparison, and why 7 — to what noun does it be- 
long ? — Rule. 

forefathers, appear not to have sufficiently attended to the changes which this 
principle of association actually produces. As language is transmitted from 
generation to generation, many words become the representatives of ideas 
with which they were not originally associated ; and thus they undergo a 
change, not only in the mode of their application, but also in their meaning. 
Words being the signs of things, their meaning must necessarily change as 
much, at least, as things themselves change ; but this variation in their im- 
port more frequently depends on accidental circumstances. Among the 
ideas connected with a word, that which was once of primary, becomes only 

7 



71 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 



" That great nation ivas once powerful ; but now it is feeble." 
Great is an adjective, a word added to a noun to express its 
quality — pos. great, comp. greater, sup. greatest — it is in the 
positive degree, it expresses the quality of an object without an\ 
increase or diminution, and belongs to the noun " nation," ac 
cording to 

Rule 18. Adjectives belong to, and qualify, nouns expressed 
or understood. 

Was is a verb, a word that signifies to be — neuter, it express- 
es neither action nor passion, but being, or a state of being — 
third person singular, because its nominative " nation" is a noun 
of multitude conveying unity of idea — it agrees with " nation, 5 * 
agreeably to 

Rule 10. Ji noun of multitude conveying unity of idea, may 
have a verb or pronoun agreeing with it in the singular. 

Powerful is an adjective belonging to "nation," according to 
Rule 18. Feeble belongs to "it," according to Note 1, under 
Rule 18. Is is a neuter verb agreeing with " it," agreeably to 
Rule 4. 

" Bonaparte entered Russia with 400,000 men." 

Four-hundred-thousand is a numeral adjective of the cardinal 
kind, it is a word used in counting, and belongs to the noun 
" men," according to Note 2, under Rule 18. Numeral adjec- 
tives belong to nouns, which nouns must agree %n number with their 
adjectives. 

If, in parsing the following examples, you find any words 
about which you are at a loss, you will please to turn back, and 
parse all the foregoing examples again. This course will enable 
you to proceed without any difficulty. 

JVfore is an adverb. Of and to are prepositions, governing 
the nouns that follow them in the objective case. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

A benevolent man helps indigent beggars. Studious scho- 
lars learn many long lessons. Wealthy merchants own large 
ships. The heavy ships bear large burdens ; the lighter ships 
carry less burdens. Just poets use figurative language. Un- 

of secondary importance ; and sometimes, by degrees, it loses altogether its 
connexion with the word, giving place to others with whieh, from some acci- 
dental causes, it has been associated. 

Two or three instances will illustrate the truth of these remarks. In an 
ancient English version of the New-Testament, we find the following lan- 
guage : " I, Paul, a rascal of Jesus Christ, unto you Gentiles," &c. But 
who, in the present acceptation of the word, would dare to call " the great 
apostle of the Gentiles" a rascal ? Rascal formerly meant a servant : one de- 
voted to the interest of another ; but now it is nearly synonymous with 



ADJECTIVES. PARSING. 



75 



grammatical expressions offend a true critick's ear. Weak 
criticks magnify trifling errours. No composition is perfect. 
The rabble was tumultuous. The late-washed grass looks 
green. Shady trees form a delightful arbour. The setting sun 
makes a beautiful appearance ; the variegated rainbow appears 
more beautiful. Epaminondas was the greatest of the Theban 
generals , Pelopidas was next to Epaminondas. 

The first fleet contained three hundred men ; the second 
contained four thousand. The earth contains one thousand 
million inhabitants. Many a cheering ray brightens the good 
man's pathway. 

Note. Like, Worth. The adjective like is a contraction uf the participle 
likened, and generally has the preposition unto understood atter it. £>ne is 
like [unto] her brother;" "They are unlike [to] him." " The kingdom of 

heaven h, like [likened or made like} UUCO a hOUSenOlder." 

The noun worth has altogether dropped its associated words. " The cloth 
is worth ten dollars a yard ;" that is, The cloth is of the worth of ten dollars 
by the yard, or for a, one, or every yard. ,, ". . ... „. 

Some eminent philologists do not admit the propriety of supplying an ellip- 
sis after like, worth, ere, but, except, and than, but consider them preposi- 
tions. See Anomalies, in the latter part of this work. 

REMARKS ON ADJECTIVES AND NOUNS. 

A critical analysis requires that the adjective when used without its noun, 
should be parsed as an adjective belonging to its noun understood ; as, 

" Thfi UtrfclfllM [p^e«^] tend it© vinooro [jxt-renne] aw always reepoetod ;" 

* Providence rewards the good [people,] and punishes the bad [people.]" 
" The evil [deed or deeds] that men do, lives after them ; 
" The good [deed ox deeds] is oft W—< i «~^ *Koi» ^— " — 
£„ + , . , « -^n-r- ffaj ~djcutivc, Dy its manner of meaning, becomes a noun, 
and has another adjective joined to it; as, "the chief good;" " The vast im- 
mense [immensity] of space." 

Various nouns placed before other nouns, assume the character of adjec- 
tives, according to their manner of meaning; as, "Sea fish, iron mortar, wine 
vessel, gold watch, cvrn field, meadow ground, mountain height." 
: The principle which recognises custom as the standard of grammatical ac- 
curacy, might rest for its support on the usage of only six words, and defy 
all the subtleties of innovating skepticks to gainsay it. If the genius and 
analogy of our language were the standard, it would be correct to observe 
this analogy, and say, " Good, gooder, goodest; bad, badger, buddest; little, 
httler, littles*; much, mucher, muchesf." "By this mean;" "What are the 
news ?" But such a criterion betrays only the weakness of those who at- 
tempt to establish it. Regardless of the dogmas and edicts of the philo- 
sophical umpire, the good sense of the people will cause them, in this in- 
stance, as well as in a thousand others, to yield to custom, and say, " Good, 

villain. Villain once had none of the odium which is now associated with 
the term ; but it signified one who, under the feudal system, rented or held 
lands of another. Thus, Henry the VIII. says to a vassal or tenant, u As 
you are an accomplished villain, I order that you receive £700 out of the 
publick treasury." The word villain, then, has given up its original idea, and 
become the representative of a new one, the word tenant having supplanted 
it. To prove that the meaning of words changes, a thousand examples 
could be adduced ; but with the intelligent reader, proof is unnecessary 



76 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 

better, best; bad, worse, worst ; little, less, least; much, more, most;" "By 
this means ;" " What is the news ?" 

With regard to the using of adjectives and other qualifying words, care must 
be taken, or your language will frequently amount to absurdity, or nonsense. 
Let the following general remark, which is better than a dozen rules, put 
you on your guard. Whenever you utter a sentence, or put your pen on 
paper to write, weigh well in your mind the meaning of the words which you 
are about to employ. See that they convey precisely the ideas which you 
wish to express by them, and thus you will avoid innumerable errours. In 
speaking of a man, we may say, with propriety, he is very wicked, or ex- 
ceedingly lavish, because the terms ivicked and lavish are adjectives that ad- 
mit of comparison ; but, if we take the words in their literal acceptation, 
there is a solecism in calling a man very honest, or exceedingly just, for the 
words honest and just, literally admit of no comparison. In point of fact, a 
man is honest or dishonest, just or unjust : there can be no medium or excess 
m this respect. Very correct, very incorrect, very right, very wrong, are 
common expressions ; but they are not literally proper. What is not cor- 
rtcc, muot bo inuuri co6 , a.n<l tkctt which is not incorrect, must be correct: 
what is not right, must be wrong; and that which is not wrong, must be 
right. To avoid that circumlocution which must otherwise take place, our 
best speakers and writers, however, frequently compare adjectives which do 
not literally admit of comparison : " The most established practice ;" " The 
most uncertain method ;" "Irving, as a writer, is far more accurate than Addi- 
son ;" " The metaphysical investigations of our philosophical grammars, are 
still more inwmprehensible to the learner." Comparisons like these, should 
generally be avoided ; but sometimes they are so convenient in practice, 
as to render them admissible. Such expressions can be reconciled with 
the principles of grammar, only by considering them as figurative. 

Comparative members of sentences, should be set in direct opposition to 
each other ; as " rope was rich, out lioldsmith was pw .- Tho following 
sentences are inaccurate : " Solomon was wiser than Cicero was eloquent. 79 
"The principles ofthe reformation were deeper in the prince's mind than to 
be easily eradicated.^ This latter sentta*** ««« tains no cnmnqrison at all ; 
neither does it literally convey any meaning. Again, if the Psalmisi wo. 
said, "I am the wisest of my teachers," he would have spoken absurdly, 
because the phrase would imply, that he was one of his teachers. But in 
saying, "I am wiser than my teachers," he does not consider himself one of 
them, but places himself in contradistinction to them. 

Before you proceed any farther, you may answer the follow- 
ing i 

QUESTIONS NOT ANSWERED IN PARSING. 

What is the distinction between a noun and an adjective ]— 
By what sign may an adjective be known] — Are participles 
ever used as adjectives] — Does gender, person, number, or 
case, belong to adjectives]— How are they varied ]— Name the 
three degrees of comparison. — What effect have less, and least 
in comparing adjectives ]— Repeat the order of parsing an ad- 
jective.— What rule applies in parsing an adjective?— What rule 
in parsing a verb agreeing with a noun of multitude conveying 
unity of idea]— What Note should be applied in parsing an ad- 
jective which belongs to a pronoun ]— What Note in parsing 
numeral adjectives ] 



ADJECTIVES. FALSE SYNTAX. *77 

QUESTIONS ON THE NOTES. 

Repeat all the various ways of forming the degrees of comparison, men- 
tioned in the first five Notes.— ComDare these adjectives, ripe, frugal, mis- 
chievous, happy, able, good, little, much or many, near, late, old,— Name 
some adjectives that are alwavs in the superlative, and never compared.— - 
Are compound adjectives compared ?— What is said of the termination ish, 
and of the adverb very ? — When does an adjective become a noun ? — What 
character does a noun assume when placed before another noun ? — How 
can you prove that custom is the standard of grammatical accuracy ? 
QUESTIONS ON THE PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES. 
How are adnouns divided ? — What constitutes the true character of an 
adjective ? — What are the signification and denotement of the terminations, 
en, ed, and ig ? — What do left and own signify ? — Name the three ways in 
which restrictives are applied. — How was numeration originally performed ? 
—What is said of twain, twenty, score, and the ordinal numbers ?—What is 
said of the changes produced in the meaning of words, by the principle of 
association ? 

EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX. 

Note 9, under Rule 18. Double Comparatives and Super- 
lalives should be avoided ; such as, worser, lesser, more deeper, 
more wickeder &c. : chief est, supremest, perfectest, rightest ; or 
more perfect, most perfect, most supreme, &c. 

Virtue confers the most supreme dignity on man, and it should 
be his chiefest desire. 

He made the greater light to rule the day, and the lesser light 
to rule the night. 

The phrases M most supreme," and "chiefest," in the first sentence, are 
incorrect, because supreme and chief are in the superlative degree without 
having the superlative form superadded, which addition makes them double 
superlatives. They should be written, " confers supreme dignity," and 
" his chief desire.' ■ , 

We can say, one thing is less than another, or smaller than another, be- 
cause the adjectives less and smaller are in the comparative degree ; but 
the phrase " lesser light," in the second sentence, is inaccurate. Lesser is 
a double comparative, which, according to the preceding Note, should be 
avoided. Lesser is as incorrect as badder, gooder, worser. " The smaller 
light," would be less exceptionable. You can correct the following without 
my assistance. Correct them four times over. 

The pleasures of the understanding are more preferable than 
those of imagination or sense. 

The tongue is like a race-horse, which runs the faster the 
lesser weight it carries. 

The nightingale's voice is the most sweetest in the grove. 

The Most Highest hath created us for his glory. 

He was admitted to the chiefest offices. 

The first witness gave a strong proof of the fact ; the next, 
a more stronger still; but the last witness, the most strongest 
of all. 

He gave the fullest and the most sincere proof of the truest 
friendship. 

7* 



73 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 

LECTURE V. 

OF PARTICIPLES. 

A Participle is a word derived from a verb, 
and partakes of the nature of a verb, and also of 
an adjective. 

Verbs have three participles, the present or 
imperfect, the perfect, and the compound. 

The present or imperfect participle denotes ac- 
tion or being continued, but not perfected. It 
always ends in ing; as, ruling, being: "lam 
writing a letter." 

The perfect participle denotes action or being 

I)erfected or finished. When derived from a regu- 
lar verb, it ends in ed, and corresponds with the 
imperfect tense ; as, ruled, smiled: " The letter 
is written" 

The compound participle implies action or be- 
ing completed before the time referred to. It is 
formed by placing having before the perfect par- 
ticiple ; as, having ruled, having been ruled: "Hav- 
ing written the letter, he mailed it." 

The term Participle comes from the Latin word participio, 
which signifies to partake ; and this name is given to this part of 
speech, because it partakes of the nature of the verb and of the 
adjective. 

PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES. 

Participles are formed by adding to the verb the termination ing, ed, or en. 
Ing signifies the same as the noun being. When postfixed to the noun-state 
of the verb, the compound word thus formed, expresses a continued state of 
the verbal denotement. It implies that what is meant by the verb, is being 
continued. En is an alteration of an, the Saxon verbalizing adjunct ; ed is 
a contraction of dede ; and the terminations d and t, are a contraction of ed. 
Participles ending in ed or en, usually denote the dodo, dede, doed, did, done, 
or finished state of what is meant by the verb. The book is printed. It is 
a print-ed or pHnt-done book, or such a one as the done act of printing has 
made it. The book is written ; i. e. it has received the done or finish-ed act 
of writ-ing it. 

Participles bear the same relation to verbs, that adnouns do to nouns. 
They might, therefore, be styled verbal adjectives. But that theory which 
ranks them with adnouns, appears to rest on a sandy foundation. In classi- 



PARTICIPLES. 79 

By many writers, the participle is classed with the verb, and 
treated as a part of it ; but, as it has no nominative, partakes of 
the nature of an adjective, requires many syntactical rules which 
apply not to the verb, and, in some other respects, has properties 
peculiar to itself, it is believed that its character is sufficiently dis- 
tinct from the verb, to entitle it to the rank of a separate part of 
speech. It is, in fact, the connecting link between, not only the 
adjective and the verb, but also the noun and the verb. 

All participles are compound in their meaning and office. Like 
verbs, they express action and being, and denote time; and, like 
adjectives, they describe the nouns of which they denote the ac- 
tion or being. In the sentences, The boatman is crossing the 
river ; I see a man labouring in the field ; Charles is standing; 
you perceive that the participles crossing and labouring express 
the actions of the boatman and the man, and standing the state oi 
being of Charles. In these respects, then, they partake of the 
nature of verbs. You also notice, that they describe the several 
nouns associated with them, like describing adjectives ; and that, 
in this respect, they participate the properties of adjectives. And, 
furthermore, you observe that they denote actions which are still 
going on ; that is, incomplete or unfinished actions ; for which 
reason we call them imperfect participles. 

Perhaps I can illustrate their character more clearly. When 
the imperfect or present and perfect participles are placed before 
nouns, they become defining or describing adjectives, and are de- 
nominated participial adjectives ; as, A loving companion ; The 
rippling stream ; Roaring winds ; A wilted leaf; An accom- 
plished scholar. Here the words loving, ripplyig, roaring, wilt- 
ed, and accomplished, describe or define the nouns with which 
they are associated. And where the participles are placed after 
their nouns, they have, also, this desenptive quality. If I say, I 

fying words, we ought to be guided more by their manner of meaning, and 
their inferential meaning, than by their primitive, essential signification. 

"I have a broken plate ;" i. e. I have a plate — broken; " I have broken a 
plate." If there is no difference in the essential meaning of the word broken, 
in these two constructions, it cannot be denied, that there is a wide differ- 
ence in the meaning inferred by custom ; which difference depends on the 
vitamer in which the term is applied. The former construction denotes, that 
I possess a plate which was broken, (whether with or without my agency, is 
not intimated,) perhaps, one hundred or one thousand years ago ; whereas, 
the meaning of the latter is, that I performed the act of reducing the plate 
from a whole to a broken state ; and it is not intimated whether I possess it, 
or some one else. It appears reasonable, that, in a practical grammar, at 
least, any word which occurs in constructions differing so widely, may pro- 
perly be classed with different parts of speech. This illustration likewise 
establishes the propriety of retaining what we call the perfect tense of thje 
verb. 



80 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 

t 

see the moon rising ; The horse is running a race ; The dog is 
beaten ; I describe the several objects, as a rising moon, a run- 
ning horse, and a beaten dog, as well as when I place these parti- 
ciples before the nouns. The same word is a participle or a par- 
ticipial adjective, according to its manner of meaning. The pre- 
ceding illustration, however, shows that this distinction is founded 
on a very slight shade of difference in the meaning of the two. 
The following examples will enable you to distinguish the one 
from the other. 

Participles. Participial adjectives. 

See the sun setting. See the setting sun. 

See the moon rising. See the rising moon. 

The wind is roaring. Hear the roaring wind. 

The twig is broken. The broken twig fell. 
The vessel anchored in the bay, The anchored vessel spreads 
lost her mast. her sail. 

The present or imperfect participle is known by its ending in 
ing ; as, floating*, riding-, hearing*, seeing*. These are derived 
from the verbs float, ride, hear, and see. But some words end- 
ing in ing are not participles ; such as evening, morning, hire- 
ling, sapling, uninteresting, unbelieving, uncontr oiling. When 
you parse a word ending in ing, you should always consider 
whether it comes from a verb or not. There is such a verb as 
interest, hence you know that the word interesting is a partici- 
ple ; but there is no such verb as tminterest, consequently, un- 
interesting can not be a participle : but it is an adjective ; as, an 
uninteresting story. You will be able very easily to distinguish 
the participle from the other parts of speech, when you shall have 
acquired a more extensive knowledge of the verb. 

Speak the participles from each of these verbs, learn, walk, 
shun, smile, sail, conquer, manage, reduce, relate, discover, 
overrate, disengage. Thus, Pres. learning, Perf. learned, 
Comp. having learned. Pres. walking, Perf. walked, Com- 
pound, having walked, and so on. 

You may now commit the order of parsing a participle, and 
then proceed with me. 

SYSTEMATICK ORDER OF PARSING. 

The order of parsing a Participle, is— a parti- 
ciple, and why ? — from what verb is it derived ? — 
speak the three — present, perfect, or compound, 
and why? — to what does it refer or belong?— 
Rule. 



PARTICIPLES. 31 

" I saw a vessel sailing." 

Sailing is a participle, a word derived from a verb, and partakes 
of the -nature of a verb, and also of an adjective — it comes from 
the verb to sail — pres. sailing, perf. sailed, comp. having sailed — 
it is a present or imperfect participle, because it denotes the 
continuance of an unfinished action — and refers to the noun 
" vessel" for its subject, according to 

Rule 27. The present participle refers to some noun or pro 
noun denoting the subject or actor. 

" Not a breath disturbs the sleeping billow." 

Sleeping is a participial adjective, a word added to a noun to 
express its quality — it cannot, with propriety, be compared — il 
belongs to the noun " billow," agreeably to . 

Rule 18. Adjectives belong to, and qualify, nouns expressed 
or understood. 

You will please to parse these two words several times over, 
and, by a little reflection, you will perfectly understand the 27th 
Rule. Recollect, the participle never varies its termination to 
agree with a noun or pronoun, for, as it has no nominative, it has 
no agreement ; but it simply refers to an actor. Examples : 
I see a vessel sailing ; or, I see three vessels sailing. You 
perceive that the participle sailing refers to a singular noun in the 
first example, and to a plural noun in the second ; and yet the 
participle is in the same form in both examples. The noun ves- 
sel is in the objective case, and governed by the transitive verb 

generally varies in order to agree with the noun which is its nomi- 
native ; as, the vessel sails ; the vessels sail. 

In this place it may not be improper to notice another Rule 
that relates to the participle. In the sentence, " The man is 
beating his horse," the noun horse is in the objective case, be- 
cause it is the object of the action expressed by the active-transi- 
tive participle " beating," and it is governed by the participle 
beating, according to 

Rule 26. Participles have the same government as the verbs 
have from which they are derived. 

The principle upon which this rule is founded, is quite appa- 
rent. As a participle derived from a transitive verb, expresses 
the same kind of action as its verb, it necessarily follows, that the 
participle must govern the same case as the verb from which it is 
derived. 

When you shall have studied this lecture attentively, you may 
proceed and parse the following exercises, containing five parts 
of speech. If, in analyzing these examples, you find any words 



82 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 

which you cannot parse correctly and systematically by referring 
to your Compend for definitions and rules, you will please to 
turn back and read over again the whole five lectures. You must 
exercise a little patience ; and, for your encouragement, permit 
me to remind you, that when you shall have acquired a thorough 
knowledge of these five parts of speech, only five more will re- 
main for you to learn. Be ambitious to excel. Be thorough in 
your investigations. Give your reasoning powers free scope. 
By studying these lectures with attention, you will acquire more 
grammatical knowledge in three months, than is commonly ob- 
tained in two years. 

In the following examples, the words purling, crusted, slum- 
hering, and twinkling, are participial adjectives. There and its 
you rrniy omit. 

EXERCISES UN PARSING. 

Orlando left the herd grazing. The hunters heard the young 
dog barking. The old fox heard the sportsman's horn sounding. 
Deep rivers float long rafts. Purling streams moisten the earth's 
surface. The sun approaching, melts the crusted snow. The 
slumbering seas calmed the grave old hermit's mind. Pale 
Cynthia declining, clips the horizon. Man beholds the twinkling 
stars adorning night's blue arch. The stranger saw the desert 
thistle bending there its lonely head. 

REMARKS ON PARTICIPLES. 

Participles frequently become nouns ; as, " A good understanding ; Ex- 

Constructions like the following, have long been sanctioned by the best 
authorities : " The goods are selling ;" " The house is building;" The work 
is now publishing." A modem innovation, however, is likely to supersede 
this mode of expression : thus, " The goods are being sold;" " The house 
is being built;" " The work is now being published." 

You may now answer these 

QUESTIONS NOT ANSWERED IN PARSING. 

How many kinds of participles are there? — What is the ending 
of a present participle? — What does a perfect participle denote ? 
— With what does the perfect participle of a regular verb corres- 
pond ? — What is a compound participle ? — From what word is 
the term participle derived? — Why is this part of speech thus 
named ? — Wherein does this part of speech partake of the nature 
of a verb ? — Do all participles participate the properties of ad- 
jectives ? — In what respect ? — When are participles called parti- 
cipial adjectives? — Give examples. — How may a present parti- 
ciple be known? — Repeat the order of parsing a participle.— 
What Rule applies in parsing a present participle? — What Ruie 



ADVERBS 



83 



in parsing a participial adjective ?— Do participles vary in their 
terminations in order to agree with their subject or actor 1 — 
What Rule applies in parsing a noun in the objective case, gov- 
erned by a participle 1 — Do participles ever become nouns ? — 
Give examples. 

QUESTIONS ON THE PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES. 
How are participles formed ? — What does the imperfect part, express?— 
What do perfect participles denote ? 



LECTURE VI. 

OF ADVERBS 

An Adverb is a word used to modify the sense 
of a verb, a participle, an adjective, or another 
adverb. 

Recollect, an adverb never qualifies a noun. It qualifies any 
of the four parts of speech abovenamed, and none others. 

To modify, or qualify, you know, means to produce some 
change. The adverb modifies. If I say, Wirt's style excels 
Irving's, the proposition is affirmative, and the verb excels ex- 
presses the affirmation. But when I say, Wirt's style excels not 
Irving's, the assertion is changed to a negative. What is it that 
thus modifies, or changes the meaning of the verb excels ? You 
perceive that it is the little word not This word has power to 
reverse the meaning of the sentence. Not, then, is a modifier, 
qualifier, or negative adverb. 

When an adverb is used to modify the sense of a verb or parti- 
ciple, it generally expresses the manner, time, or place, in which 

PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES, 

As the happiness and increasing prosperity of a people essentially depend 
on their advancement in science and the arts, and as language, in all its sub- 
lime purposes and legitimate bearings, is strictly identified with these, it 
may naturally be supposed, that that nation which continues, through suc- 
cessive generations, steadily to progress in the former, will not be neglectful 
of the cultivation and refinement of the latter. The truth of this remark is 
illustrated by those who have, for many ages, employed the English lan- 
guage as their medium for the transmission of thought. Among its refine ■ 
ments may be ranked those procedures by which verbs and nouns have been 
so modified and contracted as to form what we call adverbs, distributives, 
conjunctions, and prepositions : for I presume it will be readily conceded 



84 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 

the action is performed, or some accidental circumstance respect 
ing it. In the phrases, The man rides gracefully, awkwardly, 
badly, swiftly, slowly, &c. ; or, I saw the man riding swiftly, slow * 
ly, leisurely, very fast, &c, you perceive that the words graceful- 
ly, awkwardly, very fast, &c. are adverbs, qualifying the verb 
rides, or the participle riding, because they express the manner 
in which the action denoted by the verb and participle, is done. 

In the phrases, The man rides daily, weekly, seldom, frequent- 
ly, often, sometimes, never ; or, The man rode yesterday, hereto- 
fore, long since, long ago, recently, lately, just now ; or, The 
man will ride soon, presently, directly, immediately, by and by, 
to-day, hereafter, you perceive that all these words in italicks, are 
adverbs, qualifying the meaning of the verb rides, because thev 
express the time of the action denoted by the verb. 

Again, if I say, The man lives here, near by, yonder, remote, 
far off, somewhere, nowhere, everywhere, &c, the words in 
italicks are adverbs of place, because they tell where he lives. 

Adverbs likewise qualify adjectives, and sometimes other ad- 
verbs ; as, more wise, most wise ; or more wisely, most wisely. 
When an adverb is joined to an adjective or adverb, it generally 
expresses the degree of comparison ; for adverbs, like adjectives, 
have degrees of comparison. Thus, in the phrase, A skilful 
artist, you know the adjective skilful is in the positive degree ; 
but, by placing the adverb more before the adjective, we increase 
the degree of quality denoted by the adjective to the compara- 
tive ; as, A more skilful artist : and most renders it superlative ; 
as, A most skilful artist. And if we place more and most before 
other adverbs, the effect is the same ; as, skilfully, more skilfully, 
most skilfully. 

COMPARISON OF ADVERBS 



Positive. 


Comparative. 


Superlative. 


soon, 


sooner, 


soonest. 


often, 


oftener, 


oftenest. 


much, 


more, 


most. 


well, 


better, 


best. 


far, 


farther, 


farthest. 


wisely, 


more wisely, 


most wisely. 


justly, 


more justly, 


most justly. 


justly, 


less justly, 


least justly. 



that conciseness, as well as copiousness and perspicuity in language, is the 
offspring of refinement. That an immense amount of time and breath is 
saved by the use of adverbs, the following development will clearly demon- 
strate. He whe is successful in contracting one mode of expression that is 
daily used by thirty millions, doubtless does much for their benefit. 
Most adverbs express in one word what would otherwise require two or 



OF ADVERBS. 



85 



You will generally know an adverb at sight ; but sometimes 
you will find it more difficult to be distinguished, than any other 
part of speech in the English language. I will, therefore, give 
you some signs which will assist you a little. 

Most words ending in ly are adverbs ; such as, politely, grace- 
fully, judiciously. Any word or short phrase that will answer to 
any one of the questions, how ? how much ? when ? or where ? 
is an adverb ; as, The river flows rapidly ; He walks very 
fast ; He has gone far away ; but he will soon return ; She sings 
siveetly ; They learn none at all. How, or in what manner does 
the river flow] Rapidly. How does he walk? Very fast. 
Where has he gone ? Far away. When will he return ? Soon. 
How does she sing? Sweetly. How much do they learn? 
None at all. From this illustration you perceive, that, if you 
could not tell these adverbs by the sense, you would know them 
by their answering to the questions. However, your better way 
will be to distinguish adverbs by considering the office they per- 
form in the sentence ; or by noticing their grammatical relation, 
or their situation, with respect to other words. To gain a 
thorough knowledge of their real character, is highly important. 
Rapidly, fast, far away, soon, sweetly, &c. are known to be ad- 
verjbs by their qualifying the sense of verbs. " A very good pen 
writes extremely well." Well, in this sentence, is known to be 
an adverb by its qualifying the sense of the verb writes ; extreme- 
ly, by its ending in ly, or by its being joined to the adverb well to 
qualify it ; and very is known as an adverb by its. joining the ad- 
jective good. 

Expressions like these, none at all, a great deal, a few days 
ago, long since, at length, in vain, when they are used to denote 
the manner or time of the action of verbs or participles, are gene- 
rally called adverbial phrases. 

more words ; as, " He did it here, 11 for, He did it in this place; there, for, in 
that place ; where, for, in what place; noio, for, at this time. Why means for 
what reason ; how — in what mind, mood, mode, or manner; exceedingly — to a 
great degree; very— in an eminent degree; often and seldom signify many times, 
f&ic times. 

The procedures by which words have been contracted, modified, and com- 
bined, to form this class of words, have been various. The most prolifick fa- 
mily of this illegitimate race, are those in ly, a contraction of like. Gentle- 
manly, means gentleman-like, like a gentleman. We do not yet say, ladily, 
but lady-like. The north Britons still say, wiselike, manlike, instead of, loise- 
ly, manly. 

Quick comes from gioick, the past part, of the Anglo-Saxon verb gioiccian, 
to vivny, give life. Quick-ly or live-ly, means, in a quick-like or life-like man- 
ner ; in the manner of a creature that has life. Rajrid-ly — rapid-tike, like a 
rapid; a quick-ly or swift-ly running place in a stream. 

M-ways, contraction of in all ways. By a slight transition, it means in or 

8 



S6 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 

Adverbs, though very numerous, may, for the sake of practi 
cal convenience, be reduced to particular classes. 

1. Of Number; as, Once, twice, thrice, &c. 

2. Of Order ; as, First, secondly, lastly, finally, &c 

3. Of Place; as, Here, there, where, elsewhere, anywhere, 
somewhere, nowhere, herein, whither, hither, thither, up- 
ward, downward, forward, backward, whence, thence, 
whithersoever, &c. 

4. Of Time. 

Present; as, Now, to-day, &c. 

Past; as, Already, before, lately, yesterday, heretofore, 
hitherto, long since, long ago, &c. 

Future; as, To-morrow, not yet, hereafter, henceforth, 
henceforward, by and by, instantly, presently, immediate- 
ly, ere long, straightways, &c. 

Time indefinite; as, Oft, often, oft-times, often-times, 
sometimes, soon, seldom, daily, weekly, monthly, yearly, 
always, when, then, ever, never, again, &c. 

5. Of Quantity ; as, Much, little, sufficiently, how much, 
how great, enough, abundantly, &c. 

6. Of Manner or quality ; as, Wisely, foolishly, justly, un- 
justly, quickly, slowly, &c. Adverbs of quality are the 
most numerous kind ; and they are generally formed by 
adding the termination ly to an adjective or a participle, or 
by changing le into ly; as, Bad, badly; cheerful, cheer- 
fully; able, ably; admirable, admirably. 

7. Of Doubt ; as, haply, perhaps, peradventure, possibly, 
perchance. 

8. Of Affirmation ; as, Verily, truly, undoubtedly, doubtless, 
certainly, yea, yes, surely, indeed, really, &c. 

9. Of Negation ; as, Nay, no, not, by no means, not^tt all, 
iki V, wise, &c. 

10. Of Interrogation ; as, How, why, wherefore, whither, &c, 
and sometimes when, whence, where. 

at all times. Al-one, contraction of all-one. On-ly — one-like. Also — all the 
same (thing.) Ever — an age. For ever and ever — for ages and ages. Ever is 
not synonymous with always. Never — ne ever. It signifies no age, no period 
of time, No, contraction of not. Not, a modification of no-thing, noth-ing, 
nought, naught. " He is not greater" — is greater in nought — in no thing. 

Adrift is the past part, adrifed, adripd, adrift; from the Saxon drifan, or 
adrifan, to drive. Ago, formerly written ygo, gon, agon, gone, agone, is the past 
part.' of the verb to go. It refers to time gone by. Asunder, the Saxon past 
part, asundren, from the verb sondrian or asondrian, to separate. AVft — on 
the loft, on luft, on lyft; lyft being the Anglo-Saxon word for air or clouds. 
Astray, the part, of stratgan, to stray. Awry, part, ofwrythan, to writhe. 

Needs— need-is; anciently, nedes, nede is. 



ADVERBS. PARSING. 



87 



11. Of Comparison ; as, More, most, better, best, worse, 
worst, less, least, very, almost, little, alike, &c. 

NOTES. 
1 This catalogue contains but a small portion of the adverbs m our lan- 
guage. Many adverbs are formed by a combination of prepositions with 
the adverbs of place, here, there, where ; as, Hereof, thereof, whereof ; here- 
to, thereto, whereto ; hereby, thereby, whereby ; herewith, therewith, 
wWewith; herein, therein, wherein; therefore, (i. e. there-for,) wherefore, 
(i. e. where-fbr,) hereupon, hereon, thereupon, thereon, whereupon, where- 

2. Some adverbs are composed of nouns or verbs and the letter a, used 
instead of at, an, &c ; as, Aside, athirst, afoot, asleep, aboard, ashore, abed, 
aground, afloat, adrift, aghast, ago, askance, away, asunder, astray, &c. 

You will now please to read this lecture four times over, and 
read slowly and carefully, for unless you understand well the 
nature and character of this part of speech, you will . be fre- 
quently at a loss to distinguish it from others in composition. 
Now do you notice, that, in this sentence which you have just 
read, the words slowly, carefully, well, and frequently, are ad- 
verbs 1 And do you again observe, that, in the question I have 
just put to you, the words now imdjust are adverbs 1 Exercise 
a little sober thought. Fifteen minutes spent in reflection, are 
worth whole days occupied in careless reading. 

In the following exercises six parts of speech are presented, 
namely, Nouns> Verbs, Articles, Adjectives, Participles, and 
Adverbs ; and I believe you are now prepared to parse them all 
agreeably to the systematick order, four times over. Those 
words in italicks are adverbs. 

SYSTEMATICK ORDER OF PARSING. 

The order of parsing an Adverb, is — an adverb, 
and why ? — what sort ? — what does it qualify ? — 
Rule. 

" My friend has returned again ; but his health is not very 
good/' 

Again is an adverb, a word used to modify the sense of a 
verb — of time indefinite, it expresses a period of time not pre- 
cisely defined — it qualifies the verb "has returned," according to 

To-wU, the infinitive of witan, to know. It means, to be known, 

Jly or yea signifies have it, enjoy it. Yes is ay-es, have, possess, enjoy that. 
Our corrupt o-yes of the crier, is the French imperative, oyez, hear, listen. 

Straight way — by a straight way. While — wheel ; period in which some- 
thing whiles or wheels itself round. TUl — to while. 

Per, Latin, — the English by. Perhaps — per haps, per chance. 

These examples of derivation are given with the view to invito the atten- 
tion of the intelligent pupil to the " Diversions of Purley, by John Home 
Tooke." 



S3 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 

Rule 29. Adverbs qualify verbs, participles, adjectives, and 
other adverbs. 

Not is an adverb, a word used to modify the sense of an ad- 
verb — of negation, it makes the assertion" negative ; that is it 
changes the proposition from an affirmative to a negative— and 
it qualifies the adverb « very," agreeably to Rule 29. Adverbs 
qualify verbs, <£c. 

Very is an adverb, a word used to qualify the sense of an ad- 
jective— of comparison, it compares the adjective "good," 
and qualifies it according to Rule 29. Adverbs qualify adjec- 
tives, fyc. 1 JU J 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

The traveller described a lofty castle decaying gradually. 
Very few literary men ever become distinguished poets. The 
great Milton excels not Homer. The Roman women once, vo- 
luntarily contributed their most precious jewels to save the city. 
' Many small streams uniting, form very large rivers. The 
river Funza falling perpendicularly, forms a vast cataract. At- 
tentive servants always drive horses very carefully ; negligent 
servants often drive horses very carelessly. Assiduous scholars 
improve very fast; idle scholars learn none at all. Friendship 
often ends in love ; but love in friendship, never. 

Note. Several adverbs frequently qualify one verb. Have you walked ? 
Not yet quite far enough, perhaps. Not, yet, far, and enough, qualify " have 
walked" understood ; perhaps qualifies not ; and quite qualifies far. The 
adverbs alio ays and carefully both qualify the verb " drive :" the former ex- 
presses time, and the latter, manner. Once and voluntarily qualify the verb 
"contributed;" the former expresses number, and the latter, manner. The 
word their you need not parse. The active verb to save has no nominative. 
The nouns love and friendship, following in, are in the objective case, and 
governed by that preposition. 

REMARKS ON ADVERBS. 

When the words therefore, consequently, accordingly, and the like, are used 
in connexion with other conjunctions, they are adverbs; but when they ap- 
pear single, they are commonly considered conjunctions. 

The words when and where, and all others of the same nature, such as 
whence, whither, whenever, wherever, till, until, before, otherwise, while, where- 
fore, &c. may be properly called adverbial conjunctions, because they partici- 
pate the nature both of adverbs and conjunctions ; of adverbs, as they de- 
note the attributes either of time or place ; of conjunctions, as they conjoin 
sentences. 

There are many words that are sometimes used as adjectives, and some- 
times as adverbs ; as, " More men than women were there ; I am more dili- 
gent than he." In the former sentence more is evidently an adjective, for it 
is joined to a noun to qualify it ; in the latter it is an adverb, because it qua- 
lifies an adjective. There are others that are sometimes used as nouns, and 
sometimes as adverbs ; as, " to-day's lesson is longer than yesterday's." 
In this example, to-day and yesterday are nouns in the possessive case j but 



ADVERBS. S9 

in phrases like the following, they are generally considered adverbs of time : 
" He came [to his] home yesterday, and will set out again to-day. 11 Here they 
are nouns, if we supply on before them. 

" Where much [wealth, talent, or something else] is given, much [increase, 
improvement] will be required ; Much money has been expended ; It is much 
better to write than starve." In the first two of these examples, much is 
an adjective, because it qualifies a noun ; in the last, an adverb, because it 
qualifies the adjective better. In short, you must determine to what part of 
speech a word belongs, by its sense, or by considering the manner in which 
it is associated with other words. 

An adjective may, in general, be distinguished from an adverb by this rule; 
when a word qualifies a noun or pronoun, it is an adjective, but when it qua- 
lifies a verb, participle, adjective, or adverb, it is an adverb. 

Prepositions are sometimes erroneously called adverbs, when their nouns 
are understood. "He rides about;" that is, about the town, country, or 
some-thing else. " She was near [the act or misfortune of] falling ;" " But 
do not after [that time or event] lay the blame on me." " He came down [the 
ascent] from the hill ;" " They lifted him up [the ascent] out of the pit." 
" The angels above; 11 — above us — " Above these lower heavens, to us invisi- 
ble, or dimly seen." s 

Before you proceed to correct the following exercises in false 
Syntax, you may answer these 

QUESTIONS NOT ANSWERED IN PARSING. 

Does an adverb ever qualify a noun 1 — What parts of speech 
ioes it qualify 1 — When an adverb qualifies a verb or participle, 
tfhat does it express ? — When an adverb qualifies an adjective or 
adverb, what does it generally express ? — Compare some ad- 
verbs. — By what signs may an adverb be known? — Give ex- 
amples.— Repeat some adverbial phrases. — Name the different 
classes of adverbs. — Repeat some of each class. — Repeat the 
order of parsing an adverb. — What rule do you apply in parsing 
an adverb 1 

QUESTIONS ON THE NOTES. 

Repeat some adverbs that are formed by combining prepositions with ad 
verbs of place. — Repeat some that are composed of the article a and nouns. 
— What part of speech are the words, therefore, consequently, &c. ? — What 
words are styled adverbial conjunctions ? — Why are they so called ? — Is the 
same word sometimes used as an adjective, and sometimes as an adverb ? 
— Give examples. — What is said of much ? — By what rule can you distinguish 
an adjective from an adverb ? — Do prepositions ever become adverbs ? 

QUESTIONS ON THE PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES. 

How does the use of adverbs contribute to the conciseness of language ? 
— Illustrate the fact. — What is said of ly, like, and quick ? — How are the fol- 
lowing words composed, always, alone, only, also ? — What is the meaning of 
ever, never, not, adrift, ago, asunder, aloft, astray, awry ? — Give the significa- 
tion of needs, to-wit, ye, yes, o-yes, straightway, while, till, and per. 

Note. Learners need not answer the questions on the Philosophical 
Notes, in this or any other Lecture, unless the teacher deem it expedient. 

8* 



90 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 

EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX. 

Note 3, to Rule 29. Adjectives are sometimes improperly 
applied as adverbs ; as, indifferent honest ; excellent well ; mi- 
serable poor : — She writes elegant ; He is walking slow. 

The adjectives indifferent, excellent, and miserable, are here improperly 
nsed, because adjectives do not express the degree of adjectives or adverbs, 
but such modifications are denoted by adverbs. The phrases should, there- 
fore, be, " indifferently honest, excellently well, miserably poor." Elegant and 
sloio are also inaccurate, for it is not the office of the adjective to express 
the manner, time, or place of the action of verbs and participles, but it is 
the office of the adverb. The constructions should be, " She writes elegant' 
ly ; He is walking slowly." 

You may correct the following examples several times over, 
and explain the principles that are violated. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

He speaks fluent, and reasons coherent. 

She reads proper, and writes very neat. 

They once lived tolerable well, but now they are miserable 
poor. 

The lowering clouds are moving slow. 

He behaved himself submissive, and was exceeding careful 
not to give offence. 

Note 4, to Rule 29. Adverbs are some timesimproperly 
used instead of adjectives ; as, " The tutor addressed him in 
terms rather warm, but suitably to his offence." 

The adverb suitably is incorrect. It does not express the manner of the 
action of the verb " addressed," but it denotes the quality of the noun terms 
understood ; for which reason it should be an adjective, suitable. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

The man was slowly wandering about, solitarily and dis- 
tressed. 

He lived in a manner agreeably to his condition. 

The study of Syntax should be previously to that of Punctuation. 

He introduced himself in a manner very abruptly. 

Conformably to their vehemence of thought, was their vehe- 
mence of gesture. 

I saw him previously to his arrival 



PREPOSITIONS. 



91 



LECTURE VII. 



OF PREPOSITIONS. 

A Preposition is a word which serves to con- 
nect words, and show the relation between them. 

The term preposition is derived from the two Latin words, pre, 
which signifies before, and pono, to place. Prepositions are so 
called, because they are mostly placed before the nouns and 
pronouns which they govern in the objective case. 

The principal prepositions are presented in the following list, 
which you may now commit to memory, and thus you will be en- 
abled to distinguish them from other parts of speech whenever 
you see them in composition. 

A LIST OF THE PREPOSITIONS. 

at 
near 

down 

before 

behind 

off 

on upon 

among 

This list contains many words that are sometimes used as con- 
junctions, and sometimes as adverbs ; but when you shall have 
become acquainted with the nature of the preposition, and of the 
conjunction and adverb too, you will find no difficulty in ascer- 
taining to which of these classes any word belongs. 

By looking at the definition of a preposition, you will notice, 
that it performs a double office in a sentence, namely, it connects 
words, and also shows a relation between them. I will first show 
you the use and importance of this part of speech as a connective. 
When corn is ripe — October, it is gathered — the field — men — 



of 


over 


to 


under 


for 


through 


by 


above 


with 


below 


in 


between 


into 


beneath 


within 


from 


without 


beyond 



after 


betwixt 


about 


beside 


against 


athwart 


unto 


towards 


across 


notwithstanding 


around 


out of 


amidst 


instead of 


throughout 


over against 


underneath 


according to 



PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES. 

From, according to H. Tooke, is the Anglo-Saxon and Gothick noun frum, 
beginning, source, author. "He came/ro?n (beginning) Rochester." O/he 
supposes to be a fragment of the Gothick and Saxon noun afora, conse- 
quence, offspring, follower. " Solomon, the son of (offspring) David." Of or 
off, in its modern acceptation, signifies disjoined, sundered: A piece of (off) 
the loaf, is, a piece disjoined, or separated from the loaf. The fragrance of or 
off the rose. 

For signifies cause. " I write for your satisfaction ;" i. e. your satisfaction 
being the cause. By or be ii the imperative byth, of the Saxon beon, to be 
With, the imperative of withan, to join j or, when equivalent to by, of wyr 



92 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 

who go — hiil— hill — baskets, — which they put the ears. Fou 
perceive, that in this sentence there is a total want of connexion 
and meaning ; but let us fill up each vacancy with a preposition, 
and the sense will be clear. " When corn is ripe, in October, it 
is gathered in the field by men, who go from hill to hill with bas- 
kets, into which they put the ears." 

From this illustration you are convinced, no doubt, that our 
language would be very deficient without prepositions to connect 
the various words of which it is composed. It would, in fact, 
amount to nothing but nonsense. There is, however, another 
part of speech that performs this office, namely, the conjunction. 
This will be explained in lecture IX. ; in which lecture you will 
learn, that the nature of a preposition, as a connective particle, is 
nearly allied to that of a conjunction. In the next place I will 
show you how prepositions express a relation between words. 

The boy's hat is under his arm. In this expression, what re- 
lation does the preposition under show 1 You know that hat and 
arm are words used as signs of two objects, or ideas ; but under 
is not the sign of a thing you can think of : it is merely the sign 
of the relation existing between the two objects. Hence you may 
perceive, that since the word under is the sign of the relation ex- 
isting between particular ideas, it also expresses a relation exist- 
ing between the words hat and arm, which words are the repre- 
sentatives of those ideas. 

The boy holds his hat in his hand. In this sentence the pre 
position in shows the relation existing between hat and hand, oi 
the situation, or relative position, each has in regard to the other. 
And, if I say, The boy's hat is on his head, you perceive that on 
shows the relation between hat and head. Again, in the expres- 
sions, The boy threw his hat up stairs — under the bed — behind 
the table — through the window — over the house — across the 
street — into the water — and so on, you perceive that the several 
prepositions express the different relations existing between the 

than, to be. " I will go with him." " I join him, will go." In comes from 
the Gothiek noun inna, the interiour of the body ; a cave or cell. About, 
from boda, the first outward boundary. Among is the past part, of gamaen- 
gan, to mingle. Through or thorough is the Gothiek substantive dauro, or the 
Teutonick thuruh. It means passage, gate, door. 

Before — be-fore, be-hind, be-low, beside, besides, be-neath, are formed by 
combining the imperative be, with the nouns fore, hind, low, side, neath. 
Neath — Saxon neothan, neothe, has the same signification as nadir. Be- 
tween, be-twixt — be and twain. A dual preposition. Be-yond — be-passed. 
Beyond a place, means, be passed that place. 

Notwithstanding — notstand-ing-with, not-withstanding. "Any order to 
the contrary not-withstanding" (this order j) i. e. not effectually withstanding 
or opposing it. 



PRErOSITIONS. rARSING. 93 

hat and the other nouns, stairs, bed, table, windoic, house, street, 
and water, 

A preposition tells where a thing is : thus, " The pear is o«i 
the ground, under the tree." 

Prepositions govern the objective case, but they do not ex- 
press an action done to some object, as an active-transitive verb 
or participle does. When a noun or pronoun follows a preposi- 
tion, it is in the objective case, because it is the object of the 
relation expressed by the preposition, and not the object of an 
action. 

I can now give you a more extensive explanation of the ob- 
jective case, than that which was given in a former lecture. I 
have already informed you, that the objective case expresses the 
object of an action or of a relation ; and, also, that there are 
three parts of speech which govern nouns and pronouns in the 
objective case, namely, active-transitive verbs, participles derived 
from transitive verbs, and prepositions. A noun or pronoun in 
the objective case, cannot be, at the same time, the object of 
an action and of a relation. It must be either the object of an 
action or of a relation. And I wish you particularly to remem- 
ber, that whenever a noun or pronoun is governed by a transi- 
tive verb or participle, it is the object of an action ; as, The tutor 
instructs his pupils ; or, The tutor is instructing his pupils; but 
whenever a noun or pronoun is governed by a preposition, it is 
the object of a relation ; as, The tutor gives good instruction to 
his pupils. 

Before you proceed to parse the following examples, please 
to review this lecture, and then the whole seven in the manner 
previously recommended, namely, read one or two sentences, 
and then look off your book and repeat them two or three times 
over in your mind. This course will enable you to retain the 
most important ideas advanced. If you wish to proceed with 
ease and advantage, you must have the subject-matter of the pre- 
ceding lectures stored in your mind. Do not consider it an un- 
pleasant task to comply with my reoiv^itions, for when you shall 
have learned thus far, you will understand seven parts of speech; 
and only three more will remain to be learned. 

If you have complied with the foregoing request, you may com- 
mit the following order, and then proceed in parsing. 

SYSTEMATICK ORDER OF PARSING. 

The order of parsing a Preposition, is — a 
preposition, and why? — what does it connect ?— 
what relation does it show ? 



94 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX, 

" He saw an antelope in the wilderness." 

In is a preposition, a word which serves to connect words, aaa 
show the relation between them — it connects the words " ante- 
lope" and " wilderness" — and shows the relation between them 

Wilderness is a noun, the name of a place — com. the name of 
a sort or species — neut. gend. it denotes a thing without sex — 
third pers. spoken of — sing. num. it implies but one — and in the 
objective case, it is the object of the relation expressed by the 
preposition w in," and governed by it, according to 

Rule 31. Prepositions govern the objective case. 

The genius of our language will not allow us to say, Stand 
before he ; Hand the paper to they. Prepositions require the 
pronoun following them to be in the objective form, position, or 
case ; and this requisition amounts to government. Hence we 
say, " Stand before him ;" " Hand the paper to them." Every 
preposition expresses a relation, and every relation must have 
an object : consequently, every preposition must be followed by 
a noun or pronoun in the objective case, 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

The all-wise Creator bestowed the power of speech upon 
man, for the most excellent uses. Augustus heard the orator 
pleading the client's cause, in a flow of most powerful eloquence. 
Fair Cynthia smiles serenely over nature's soft repose. Life's 
varying schemes no more distract the labouring mind of man. 
Septimius stabbed Pompey standing on the shore of Egypt. 

A beam of tranquillity often plays round the heart of the truly 
pious man. The thoughts of former years glide over my soul, 
like swift-shooting meteors over Ardven's gloomy vales. 

At the approach of day, night's swift dragons cut the clouds 
full fast ; and ghosts, wandering here and there, troop home to 
church-yards. 

Love still pursues an ever devious race, 
True to the winding lineaments of grace. 

Note. — The words my and andyou need not parse. The noun " meteors," 
following the adverb "like," is in the objective case, and governed by unto 
understood, according to Note 2, under Rule 32. The noun " home" is 
governed by to understood, according to Rule 32. 

REMARKS ON PREPOSITIONS AND VERBS. 

A noun or pronoun in the objective case, is often governed by a preposi- 
tion understood; as, "Give him that book ;" that is, "Give that book to 
him ;" " Ortugral was one day wandering," &c. that is, on one day. " Mer- 
cy gives affliction a grace ;" that is, Mercy gives a grace to affliction. See 
Note 1, under Rule 32. 

To be able to make a proper use of prepositions, particular attention is 
requisite. There is a peculiar propriety to be observed in the use of by and 
with ; as ; " He walks with a staff by moonlight j" " He was taken by strata- 



PRONOUNS. 95 

gem, and killed with a sword." Put the one preposition for the other, and 
say, " He walks by a staff with moonlight ;" " He was taken with stratagem, 
and killed by a sword ;" and it will appear, that the latter expressions dif- 
fer irom the former in signification, more than one, at first view, would be 
apt to imagine. 

Verbs are often compounded of a verb and a preposition ; as, to tephold, to 
toifAstand, to overlook ; and this composition gives a new meaning to the 
verb ; as, to understand, to luifAdraw, to forgive. But the preposition is 
more frequently placed after the verb, and separately from it, like an ad- 
verb; in which situation it does not less affect the sense of the verb, and 
give it a new meaning ; and in all instances, whether the preposition is 
placed either before or after the verb, if it gives a new meaning to the verb, 
it may be considered as apart of the verb. Thus, to cast means to throw ; 
but to cast up an account, signifies to compute it ; therefore up is a part of the 
verb. The phrases, to fall on, to bear out, to give over, convey very different 
meanings from what they would if the prepositions on, out, and over, were not 
used. Verbs of this kind are called compound verbs. 

You may now answer the following 

QUESTIONS NOT ANSWERED IN PARSING. 

From what words is the term preposition derived ? — Why is 
it thus named? — Repeat the list of prepositions. — Name the 
three parts of speech that govern nouns and pronouns in the 
objective case. — When is a noun or pronoun in the objective 
case, the object of an action 1 — When is it the object of a rela- 
tion 1 — Repeat the order of parsing a preposition. — What rule 
do you apply in parsing a noun or pronoun governed by a pre- 
position ?— Does every preposition require an objective case 
after it ] — Is a noun or pronoun ever governed by a preposition 
understood 7 ? — Give examples. — What is said of verbs com- 
pounded of a verb and preposition 1 — Give the origin and mean 
ing of the prepositions explained in the Philosophical Notes. 



LECTURE VIII. 

OF PRONOUNS. 



A Pronoun is a word used instead of a noun, 
and generally to avoid the too frequent repetition 
of the same word. A pronoun is, likewise, 
sometimes a substitute for/ a sentence, or mem 
her of a sentence. 



9C ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 

The word 'pronoun comes from the two Latin words, pre, 
which means for, or instead of, and nomen, a name, or noun. 
Hence you perceive, that pronoun means for a noun, or instead 
of a noun. 

In the sentence, " The man is happy ; he is benevolent ; he 
is useful ;" you perceive, that the word he is used instead of the 
noun man; consequently he must be a pronoun. You observe, 
too, that, by making use of the pronoun he in this sentence, we 
avoid the repetition of the noun man, for without the pronoun, 
the sentence would be rendered thus, " The man is happy ; the 
man is benevolent ; the man is useful." 

By looking again at the definition, you will notice, that pro- 
nouns always stand for nouns, but they do not always avoid the 
repetition of nouns. Repetition means repeating or mentioning 
the same thing again. In the sentence, " I come to die for my 
country," the pronouns, /and my, stand for the name of the per- 
son who speaks ; but they do not avoid the repetition of that 
name, because the name or noun for which the pronouns are 
used, is not mentioned at all. Pronouns of the third person, 
generally avoid the repetition of the nouns for which they stand ; 
but pronouns of the first and second person, sometimes avoid 
the repetition of nouns, and sometimes they do not. 

A little further illustration of the pronoun will show you its 
importance, and, also, that its nature is very easily compre- 
hended. If we had no pronouns in our language, we should be 
obliged to express ourselves in this manner : "A woman went 
to a man, and told the man that the man was in danger of being 
murdered by a gang of robbers ; as a gang of robbers had made 
preparations for attacking the man. The man thanked the wo- 
man for the woman's kindness, and, as the man was unable to 
defend the man's self, the man left the man's house, and went 
to a neighbour's." 

This would be a laborious style indeed ; but, by the help of 
pronouns, we can express the same ideas with far greater ease 
and conciseness : " A woman went to a man, and told him, 
that he was in great danger of being murdered by a gang of rob- 
bers, who had made preparations for attacking him. He thank- 
ed her for her kindness, and, as he was unable to defend him- 
self, he left his house and went to a neighbour's." 

If you look at these examples a few moments, you cannot be 
at a loss to tell which words are pronouns ; and you will ob- 
serve, too, that they all stand for nouns. 

Pronouns are generally divided into three 
kinds, the Personal, the Adjective, and the Re- 



PERSONAL PRONOUNS. ^ 7 

lative pronouns. They are all known by the 
lists. 

1. OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. - 

Personal Pronouns are distinguished from 
the relative, by their denoting the person of the 
nouns for which they stand- There are five of 
them ; J, thou, he, she, it ; with their plurals, 
We, ye or you, they. 

To pronouns belong gender, person, number, 
and cas-a. 

Gender. When we speak of a man, we say, he, his, him ; 
when we speak of a woman, we say, she, hers, her ; and when 
we speak of a thing, we say it. Hence you perceive, that gen- 
der belongs to pronouns as well as to nouns. Example ; " The 
general, in gratitude to the lady, offered her his hand ; but she, 
not knowing him, declined accepting it." The pronouns his 
and him, in this sentence, personate or represent the noun ge- 
neral ; they are, therefore, of the masculine gender : her and 
she personate lady ; therefore, they are feminine : and it repre- 
sents hand; for which reason it is of the neuter gender. This 
illustration shows you, then, that pronouns must be of the same 
gender as the nouns are for which they stand. But, as it relates 
to the variation of the pronouns to express sex, 

Gender has respect only to the third person 
singular of the pronouns, he, she, it. He is mas- 
culine ; she is feminine ; it is neuter. 

You may naturally inquire, why pronouns of the first and 
second persons are not varied to denote the gender of their 
nouns, as well as of the third. The reason is obvious. The 
first person, that is, the person speaking, and the second person, 
or the person spoken to, being at the same time the subjects of 
the discourse, are supposed to be present ; from which, and otlier 
circumstances, their sex is commonly known, and, therefore, 
the pronouns that represent these persons, need not be marked 
by a distinction of gender ; but the third person, that is, the 
person or thing spoken of, being absent, and in many respects 
unknown, necessarily requires the pronoun that stands for it, to 
be marked by a distinction of gender. 

In parsing, we sometimes apply gender to pronouns of the 
first and second person, and also to the plural number of the 
third person ; but these have no peculiar form to denote thei* 

9 



98 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 

gender ; therefore they have no agreement, in this respect, with 
the nouns which they represent. 

Person. Pronouns have three persons in each 
number. 

7, is the first person "] 

Thou, is the second person > Singular. 

He, she, or it, is the third person J 

We, is the first person "] 

Ye or you, is the second person } Plural. 

They, is the third person J 

This account of persons will be very intelligible, when you 
reflect, that there are three persons who may be the subject of 
any discourse : first, the person who speaks, may speak of him- 
self ; secondly, he may speak of the person to whom he address- 
es himself; thirdly, he may speak of some other person ; and 
as the speakers, the persons spoken to, and the persons spoker* 
of, may be many, so each of these persons must have a plurai 
number. 

Pronouns of the second and third person, always agree in 
person with the nouns they represent ; but pronouns of the first 
person, do not. Whenever a pronoun of the first person is used, 
it represents a noun ; but nouns are never of the first person, 
therefore these pronouns cannot agree in person with their 
nouns. 

Number. Pronouns, like nouns, have two 
numbers, the singular and the plural ; as, I, thou, 
he; ive, ye or you, they. 

Case. Pronouns have three cases, the no- 
minative, the possessive, and the objective. 

In the next place I will present to you the declension of the 
personal pronouns, which declension you must commit to me- 
mory before you proceed any further. 

The advantages resulting from the committing of the follow- 
ing declension, are so great and diversified, that you cannot be 
too particular in your attention to it. You recollect, that it is 
sometimes very difficult to distinguish the nominative case of a 
noun from the objective, because these cases of nouns are not 
marked by a difference in termination ; but this difficulty is 
removed in regard to the personal pronouns, for their cases are 
always known by their termination. By studying the declen- 



PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 99 

sion you will learn, not only the cases of the pronouns, but, also, 
their genders, persons, and numbers. 

DECLENSION OF THE PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 
FIRST PERSON. 
Sing. Plur. 

Norn. I, we, 

Poss. my or mine, our or ours, 

Obj. me. us. 

SECOND PERSON. 

Sing. Plur. 

Nom. thou, ye or you, 

Poss. thy or thine, your or yours, 

Obj. thee. you. 
THIRD PERSON. 

Mas. Sing. Plur. 

Nom. he, they, 

Poss. his, their or theirs, 

Obj. him. them. 

THIRD PERSON. 

Fern. Sing. Plur. 

Nom. she, they, 

Poss. her or hers, their or theirs, 

Obj. her. them. 

THIRD PERSON. 

Neut. Sing. Plur. 

Nom. it, they, 

Poss. its, their or theirs, 

Obj. it. them. 

NOTES. 
1. When self is added to the personal pronouns, as himself, myself, itself 



themselves, &c. they are called compound personal pronouns, and are used 
the nominative or objective case, but not in the possessive. 
2. In order to avoid the disagreeable harshness of sound, occasioned by the 



in the nominative or objective case, but not in the possessive. 

of sound, occasioned oy 
frequent recurrence of the terminations est, edst, in the adaptation of our 



verbs to the nominative thou, a modern innovation which substitutes you for 
thou, in familiar style, has generally been adopted. This innovation contri- 
butes greatly to the harmony of our colloquial style. You was formerly re- 
stricted to the plural number; but now it is employed to represent either 
a singular or a plural noun. It ought to be recollected, however, that when 



100 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 

used as the representative of a singular noun, this word retains its original 
plural form; and, therefore, the verb connected with it, should always be 
plural. Inattention to this peculiarity, has betrayed some writers into the 
erroneous conclusion, that, because you implies unity when it represents a 
singular noun, it ought, when thus employed, to be followed by a singular 
verb ; as, " When was you there ?" " How far was you from the parties?" Such a 
construction, however, is not supported by good usage, nor by analogy. It is as 
manifest a solecism as to say, We am, or we is. W T ere it, in any case, admissi- 
ble to connect a singular verb with you, the use of ivas would still be ungram- 
matical, for this form of the verb is confined to the first and third persons, 
and you is second person. Wast being second person, it would approximate 
nearer to correctness to say, you xoasL We never use the singular of the 
present tense with yOu : — you art, you is ; you walkest, you toalks. Why, 
then, should any attempt be made to force a usage so unnatural and gratuitous 
as the connecting of the singular verb in the past tense with this pronoun ? In 
every point of view, the construction, "When were you there ?" " How far 
to ere you from the parties ?" is preferable to the other. 

3. The words my, thy, his, her, our, your, their, are, by many, denominated 
possessive adjective pronouns; but they always stand for nouns in the posses- 
sive case. They ought, therefore, to be classed with the personal pronouns, 
That principle of classification which ranks them with the adjective pronouns, 
would also throw all nouns in the possessive case among the adjectives 
Example : " The lady gave the gentleman her watch for his horse." In this 
sentence her personates, or stands for, the noun " lady," and his represents 
" gentleman." This fact is clearly shown by rendering the sentence thus, 
" The lady gave the gentleman the lady's watch for the gentleman's horse." 
If lady's and gentleman's are nouns, her and his must be personal pronouns. 
The same remarks apply to my, thy, our, your, their and its. This view of 
these words may be objected to by th^se who speculate and refine upon the 
principles of grammar until they prove their non-existence, but it is believed, 
nevertheless, to be based on sound reason and common sense. 

4. Mine, thine, his, hers, ours, yours, theirs, have, by many respectable 
grammarians, been considered merely the possessive cases of personal pro- 
nouns, whilst, by others, they have been denominated pronouns or nouns in 
the nominative or objective case. It is believed, however, that a little atten- 
tion to the meaning and office of these words, will clearly show the impro- 
priety of both these classifications. Those who pursue the former arrange- 
ment, allege, that, in the examples, " You may imagine what kind of faith 
theirs was ; My pleasures are past ; hers and yours are to come ; they ap- 
plauded his conduct, but condemned hers and yours," the words theirs, hers 9 
and yours, are personal pronouns in the possessive case, and governed by 
their respective nouns understood. To prove this, they construct the sen- 
tences thus, " you may imagine what kind of faith their faith was ; — her 
pleasures and your pleasures are to come ; — but condemned her conduct and 
your conduct;" or thus, " You may imagine what kind of faith the faith of 
them was ; — the pleasures of her and the pleasures of you, are to come , — 
but condemned the conduct of her and the conduct of you." But these con- 
structions, (both of which are correct,) prove too much for their purpose ; 
for, as soon as we supply the nouns after these words, they are resolved into 
personal pronouns of kindred meaning, and the nouns which we supply : 
thus, theirs becomes, their faith : hers, her pleasures ; and yours, your 
pleasures. This evidently gives us two words instead of, and altogether dis- 
tinct from, the first; so that, in parsing, their faith, we are not, in reality, 
analyzing theirs, but two other words of which theirs is the proper representa- 
tive. These remarks also prove, with equal force, the impropriety of calling 
these words merely simple pronouns or nouns in the nominative or objective 
case. Without attempting to develope the original or intrinsick meaning ot 
these pluralizing adjuncts, ne and s t which were, no doubt, formerly detached 



PERSONAL PRONOUNS. PARSING. 101 

from the pronouns with which they now coalesce, for all practical purposes, 
it is sufficient for us to know, that, in the present application of these pro- 
nouns, they invariably stand for, not only the person possessing, but, also, 
the thing possessed, which gives them a compound character. They may, 
therefore, be properly denominated Compound Personal Pronouns ; and, 
as they always perform a double office in a sentence by representing two 
other words, and, consequently, including two cases, they should, like the 
compound relative what, be parsed as two words. Thus, in the example, 
" You may imagine what kind of faith theirs was," theirs is a compound per- 
sonal pronoun, equivalent to their faith. Their is a pronoun, a word used 
instead of a noun ; personal, it personates the persons spoken of, under- 
stood ; third pers. plur. numb. &c. — and in the possessive case, and governed 
by " faith," according to Rule 12. Faith is a noun, the name of a thing j 
&c. &c. — and in the nominative case to " was," and governs it ; Rule 3. Or, 
if we render the sentence thus, " You may imagine what kind of faith the 
Jaith of them* was," faith would be in the nominative case to "was," and 
them would be in the objective case, and governed by " of:" Rule 31. 

Objections to this method of treating these pronouns, will doubtless be 
preferred by those who assert, that a noun is understood after these words, 
and not represented by them. But this is assertion without proof; for, if a 
noun were understood, it might be supplied. If the question be put, whose 
book ? and the answer be, mine, ours, hers, or theirs, the word book is includ- 
ed in such answer. Were it not included, we might supply it, thus, mine 
book, ours book, hers book, and so on. This, however, we cannot do, for it 
would be giving a double answer : but when the question is answered by a 
noun in the possessive case, the word book is not included, but implied ; as, 
Whose book ? John's, Richard's ; that is, John's book; Richard's book. 

This view of the subject, without a parallel, except m the compounds what, 
whoever, and others, is respectfully submitted to the publick ; believing, that 
those who approve of a critical analysis of words, will coincide with me. 
Should any still be disposed to treat these words so superficially as to rank 
them among the simple pronouns, let them answer the following interroga- 
tory : If what, when compound, should be parsed as two words, why not 
mine, thine, his, hers, ours, yours, and theirs ? 

5. Mine and thine, instead of my and thy, are used in solemn style, before 
a word beginning with a vowel or silent h ; as, " Blot out all mine iniquities •" 
and when thus used, they are not compound. His always has the same 
form, whether simple or compound ; as, " Give John his book ; That desk is 
his." Her, when placed before a noun, is in the possessive case ; as, Take 
her hat : when standing alone, it is in the objective case j as, Give the hat 
to her. 

When you shall have studied this lecture attentively, and com- 
mitted the declension of the personal pronouns, you may commit 
the following 

SYSTEMATICK ORDER OF PARSING. 

The order of parsing a Personal Pronoun, 

* In the note next preceding, it is asserted, that my, thy, his, her, our, 
your, and their, are personal pronouns. What can more clearly demonstrate 
the correctness of that assertion, than this latter construction of the word 
theirs ? All admit, that, in the construction, " The faith of them," the word 
them is a personal pronoun : and for this conclusive reason :— it represents 
a noun understood. What, then, is their, in the phrase, " their faith ?" Is it 
not obvious, that, if them is a personal pronoun, their must be, also ? for the 
latter represents the same noun as the former. 

9* 



102 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 

is — a pronoun, and why ?— personal, and why ? — 
person, and why?— gender and number, and 
why ?— Rule : case, and why ?— Rule.— De- 
cline it. 

There are many peculiarities to be observed in parsing per- 
sonal pronouns in their different persons ; therefore, if you wish 
ever to parse them correctly, you must pay particular attention 
to the manner in which the following are analyzed. Now no- 
tice, particularly, and you will perceive that we apply only one 
rule in parsing / and my, and two in parsing thou, him, and they. 

" J saw my friend." 

/ is a pronoun, a word used instead of a noun — personal, it 
represents the person speaking, understood — first person, it de- 
notes the speaker — singular number, it implies but one — and in 
the nominative case, it represents the actor and subject of the 
verb " saw," and governs it, agreeably to Rule 3. The nom. 
case gov. the verb. Declined — first pers. sing. num. nom. I, 
poss. my or mine, obj. me. Plur. nom. we, poss. our or ours, 
obj. us. 

J\Iy is a pronoun, a word used instead of a noun — personal, 
it personates the person speaking, understood — first pers. it de- 
notes the speaker — sing. num. it implies but one — and in the 
possessive case, it denotes possession ; it is governed by the 
noun "friend," agreeably to Rule 12. A noun or pronoun in 
the possessive case, is governed by the noun it possesses. Declin 
ea * — first pers. sing. nom. I, poss. my or mine, obj. me. Plur. 
nom. we, poss. our or ours, obj. us. 

"Young man, thou hast deserted thy companion, and left him 
in distress." 

Thou is a pronoun, a word used instead of a noun — personal, 
it personates "man" — second person, it represents the person 
spoken to — mas. gend. sing. num. because the noun " man" 
is for which it stands, according to 

Rule 13. Personal pronouns must agree with the nouns for 
ivhich they stand-in gender and number. 

Thou is in the nom. case, it represents the actor and subject 
of the verb "hast deserted," and governs it agreeably to Rule 
3. The nom. case gov. the verb. Declined — sec. pers. sing, 
num. nom. thou, poss. thy or thine, obj. thee. Plur. nom. ye 
or you, poss. your or yours, obj. you. 

Him is a pronoun, a word used instead of a noun — personal, 
it personates " companion" — third pers. it represents the per- 
son spoken of— mas. gend. sing. numb, because the noun 



PERSONAL TRONOUNS. — PARSING. 103 

" companion" is for which it stands : Rule 13. Pers. pro. fyc. 
(Repeat the Rule.) — Him is in the objective case, the object of 
the action expressed by the active-transitive verb " hast left," 
and gov. by it : Rule 20. Active-trans, verbs gov. the obj. case. 
Declined — third pers. mas. gend. sing. num. nom. he, poss. 
his, obj. him. Plur. nom. they, poss. their or theirs, obj. 
them. 

" Thrice I raised my voice, and called the chiefs to combat ; 
but they dreaded the force of my arm." 

They is a pronoun, a word used instead of a noun — person- 
al, it represents " chiefs" — third pers. it denotes the persons 
spoken of — mas. gend. plur. num. because the noun " chiefs" 
is for which it stands : Rule 13. Pers. Pron. $c. (Repeat 
the Rule.) It is the nom. case, it represents the actors and 
subject of the verb " dreaded," and governs it : Rule 3. The 
nom. case, gov. the verb. Declined — third pers. mas. gend. 
sing. numb. nom. he, poss. his, obj. him. Plur. nom. they, 
poss. their or theirs, obj. them. 

Note. We do not apply gender in parsing the personal pronouns, (ex 
cepting the third person singular,) if the nouns they represent are under- 
stood ; and therefore we do not, in such instances, apply Rule 13. But 
when the noun is expressed, gender should be applied, and two Rules. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

I saw a man leading his horse slowly over the new bridge. 
My friends visit me very often at my father's office. We im- 
prove ourselves by close application. Horace, thou learnest 
many lessons. Charles, you, by your diligence, make easy 
work of the task given you by your preceptor. Young ladies, 
you run over your lessons very carelessly. The stranger drove 
his horses too far into the water, and, in so doing, he drowned 
them. 

Gray morning rose in the east. A green narrow vale ap- 
peared before us : its winding stream murmured through the 
grove. The dark host of Rothmar stood on its banks with 
their glittering spears. We fought along the vale. They fled. 
Rothmar sunk beneath my sword. Day was descending in the 
west, when I brought his arms to Crothar. The aged hero felt 
them with his hands : joy brightened his thoughts. 

Note. Horace, Charles, and ladies, are of the second person, and nom. 
case indepeyi'jnt : see Rule 5, and Note. The first you is used in the nom. 
poss. and obj. case. — It represents Charles, therefore it is singidar in sense, 
although plural in form. In the next example, you personifies ladies, there- 
fore it is plural. Given is a perfect participle. You following given, is govern- 
ed by to understood, according to Note 1, under Rule 32. Run over is a com- 
pound verb. And is a conjunction. The first its personates vale $ the second 
its represents stream. 



104 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAXc 

You may now parse the following examples three time? 
over. 

COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

"Juliet, retain her paper, and present yours. 91 
Yours is a compound personal pronoun, representing both 
the possessor and the thing possessed, and is equivalent to your 
paper. Your is a pronoun, a word used instead of a noun — 
personal, it personates " Juliet" — second person, it represents 
the person spoken to — fern, gender, sing, number, (singular in 
sense, but plural in form,) because the noun Juliet is for which 
it stands : Rule 13. Pers. pron. Sec. — your is in the possessive 
case, it denotes possession, and is governed by " paper," ac- 
cording to Rule 12. A noun or pron. fyc. (Repeat the Rule, 
and decline the pronoun.) Paper is a noun, the name of a 
things-common, the name of a sort of things — neuter gender, it 
denotes a thing without sex — third person, spoken of — sing- 
number, it implies but one — and in the obj. case, it is the object 
of the action expressed by the transitive verb " present," and 
governed by it : Rule 20. Active-transitive verbs, govern tlie 
obj. case. 

Note. Should it be objected, that yours does not mean your paper, any 
more than it means your book, your house, your any thing, let it be borne in 
mind, that pronouns have no definite meaning, like other words ; but thei/ 
particular signification is always determined by the nouns they represent. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

Julia injured her book, and soiled mine : hers is better than 
mine. My friend sacrificed his fortune to secure yours : his 
deeds deserve reward ; yours merit disgrace. Henry's labours 
are past; thine are to come. We leave your forests of beasts 
for ours of men. My sword and yours are kin. 

Note. She understood, is nominative to soiled, in the first example ; and 
the substantive part of wine, after than, is nom. to is, understood : Rule 35. 
The verbs to secure and to come have no nominative. The pronouns mine, 
vm/, yours, thine, xoe, your, ours, my, and yourp, personate nouns understood. 

REMARKS ON IT. 

For the want of a proper knowledge of this little pronoun it, many gram- 
marians have been greatly puzzled how to dispose of it, or how to account 
for its multiform, and, seemingly, contradictory characters. It is in great 
demand by writers of every description. They use it without ceremony ; 
either in the nominative or objective case ; either to represent one person or 
thing, or more than one. It is applied to nouns in the masculine, feminine, 
or neuter gender, and, very frequently, it represents a member of a sentence, 
a whole sentence, or a number of sentences taken in a mass. 

A little attention to its true character, will, at once, strip it of all its mys- 
tery. It, formerly written hit, according to H. Tooke, is the past participle of 
the Moeso-Gothick verb haitan. It means, the said, and, therefore, like its 
near relative that, meaning, the assumed, originally had no respect, in its ap- 
plication, to number, person, or gender. " It is a wholesome law :" i. e. the 



ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. 105 

said (law) is a wholesome law ; or, that (law) is a wholesome law ; — the as- 
sumed (law) is a wholesome law. " It is the man ; I believe it to be them :" 
— the said (man) is the man ; that (man) is the man : I believe the said (per- 
sons) to be them ; I believe that persons (according to the ancient applica^ 
tion of that) to be them. " It happened on a summer's day, that many people 
were assembled," &c. — Many people were assembled: it, that, or the said 
(fact or circumstance) happened on a summer's day. 

It, according to its accepted meaning in modern times, is not referred to 
a noun understood after it, but is considered a substitute. " How is ti with 
you ?" that is, How is your state or condition ?" " It rains ; It freezes ; It is 
a hard winter ;" — The rain rains ; The frost frosts or freezes ; The said (win- 
ter) is a hard winter. " It is delightful to see brothers and sisters living in 
uninterrupted love to the end of their days." What is delightful ? To see 
brothers and sisters living in uninterrupted love to the end of their days. It, this 
thing, is delightful. It, then, stands for all that part of the sentence express- 
ed in italicks ; and the sentence will admit of the following construction ; 
" To see brothers living in uninterrupted love to the end of their days,i3 de» 
lightful." 

OF ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. 
Adjective Pronouns, Pronominal Adjec- 
tives, or, more properly, Specifying Adjec- 
tives, are a kind of adjectives which point out 
nouns by some distinct specification. 

Pronouns and adjectives are totally distinct in their cha 
racter. The former stand ybr nouns, and never belong to them 
the latter belong to nouns, and never stand for them. Hence 
such a thing as an adjective-pronoun cannot exist. Each, 
every, either, this, that, some, other, and the residue, are pure 
adjectives. 

Those specifying adjectives commonly called 
Adjective Pronouns, may be divided into three 
sorts ; the distributive, the demonstrative, and the 
indefinite. They are all known by the lists. 

1. The distributive adjectives are those that 
denote the persons or things that make up a 
number, each taken separately and singly. List: 
each, every, either, and sometimes neither; as, 
'< Each of his brothers is in a favourable situa- 
tion;" " Every man must account for himself;" 
" Neither of them is industrious." 

These distributives are words which are introduced into lan- 
guage in its refined state, in order to express the nicest shades 
and colours of thought. "Man must account for himself;" 
"Mankind must account for themselves ;" " Jill men must ac- 



106 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 

count for themselves ;" " Jill men, ivomen, and children, must 
account for themselves ;" " Every man must account for him- 
self." Each of these assertions conveys the same fact or 
truth. But the last, instead of presenting the whole human 
family for the mind to contemplate in a mass, by the peculiar 
force of every, distributes them, and presents each separately 
and singly ; and whatever is affirmed of one individual, the 
mind instantaneously transfers to the whole human race. 

Each relates to two or more persons or things, and signifies either of the 
two, or every one of any number taken separately. 

Every relates to several persons or things, and signifies each one of them 
all taken separately. 

Either relates to two persons or things taken separately, and signifies the 
one or the other. " Either of the three," is an improper expression. It should 
be, " any of the three." 

Neither imports not either ; that is, not one nor the other ; as, " Neither 
of my friends was there." When an allusion is made to more than tvxt, none 
should be used instead of neither ; as, " None of my friends was there." 

II. The demonstrative are those which pre- 
cisely point out the subject to which they relate. 
List : this and thai, and their plurals, these and 
those , and former and latter; as, " This is true 
charity ; that is only its image. " 

There is but a slight shade of difference in the meaning and 
application of the and that When reference is made to a par- 
ticular book, we say, "Take the book ;" but when we wish to 
be very pointed and precise, we say, " Take that book ;'* or, if 
it be near by, " Take this book." You perceive, then, that 
these demonstratives have all the force of the definite article, 
and a little more. 

This and these refer to the nearest persons or things, that and those to the 
most distant ; as, " These goods are superior to those." This and these indi- 
cate the latter, or last mentioned ; that and those, the former, or first men- 
tioned ; as, "Both wealth and poverty are temptations ; that tends to excite 
pride, this, discontent." 

" Some place the bliss in action, some in ease ; 

" Those call it pleasure, and contentment, these." 
They, those. As it is the office of the personal they to represent a noun 
previously introduced to our notice, there appears to be a slight departure 
from analogy in the following application of it : " They who seek after wis- 
dom, are sure to find her: They that sow in tears, sometimes reap in joy." 
This usage, however, is well established, and they, in such constructions, is 
generally employed in preference to those. 

III. The indefinite are those which express 
their subjects in an indefinite or general manner. 
List : some, other, any, one, all, such, both, same, 
another, none. Of these, one and other are de- 



ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. PARSING. 107 

clined like nouns. Another is declined, but wants 
the plural. 

The indefinite adjectives, like the indefinite article, leave the 
meaning unfixed, or, in some degree, vague. With a slight 
shade of difference in meaning, we say, fiive me a paper, ont 
paper, any paper, some paper, and so on. Though these words 
restrict the meaning of the noun, they do not fix it to a particular 
object. We therefore call them indefinite. 

These adjectives, or adjective pronouns, frequently belong to nouns under- 
stood, in which situation they should be parsed accordingly ; as, " You may 
take either ; He is pleased with this book, but dislikes that (book ;) Jill (men) 
have sinned, but some (men) have repented." 

The words one, other, and none, are used in 
both numbers ; and when they stand for nouns, 
they are not adjectives, but indefinite pronouns ; 
as, " The great ones of the world have their fail- 
ings ;" " Some men increase in wealth, while 
others decrease f " None escape." 

The word " ones," in the preceding example, does not be- 
long to a noun understood. If it did, we could supply the 
noun. The meaning is not " the great one men, nor ones 
men," therefore one is not an adjective pronoun ; but the mean- 
ing is, " The great men of the world," therefore ones is a pro- 
noun of the indefinite kind, representing the noun men under- 
stood, and it ought to be parsed like a personal pronoun. The 
word others, in the next example, rs a compound pronoun, 
equivalent to other men ; and should be parsed like mine, thine, 
$c. See Note, 4th page. 

I will now parse two pronouns, and then present some exam- 
ples for you to analyze. If, in parsing the following exercises, 
you should be at a loss for definitions and rules, please to refer 
to the compendium. But before you proceed, you may commit 
the following 

SYSTEMATICK ORDER OF PARSING. 

The order of parsing an Adjective Pronoun, 
is — an adjective pronoun, and why? — distribu- 
tive, demonstrative, or indefinite, and why ? — to 
what noun does it belong, or with what does it 
agree ? — Rule. 

" One man instructs many others." 
One is an adjective pronoun, or specifying adjective, it speci- 



108 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 

fically points out a noun — indefinite, it expresses its subject in 
an indefinite or general manner, and belongs to the noun " man," 
according to 

Rule 19. Adjective pronouns belong to nouns, expressed or 
understood. 

Others is a compound pronoun, including both an adjective 
pronoun and a nc^n, and is equivalent to other men. Other 
is an adjective pronoun, it is used specifically to describe its 
noun — indefinite, it expresses its subject in an indefinite manner, 
and belongs to men : Rule 19. (Repeat the rule.) Men is a 
noun, a name denoting persons — common, &c. (parse it in full ;) 
and in the objective case, it is the object of the action expressed 
by the transitive verb " instructs," and gov. by it : Rule 20. 
Active-transitive verbs, fyc. 

" Those books are mine." 

Those is an adjective pronoun, it specifies what noun is re- 
ferred to — demonstrative, it precisely points out the subject to 
which it relates — and agrees with the noun " books" in the 
plural number, according to Note 1, under Rule 19. Adjective 
pronouns must agree in number with their nouns. 

Mine is a compound personal pronoun, including both the 
possessor and the thing possessed, and is equivalent to my 
books. My is a pron. a word used instead of a noun — personal, 
it stands for the name of the person speaking— first person, it 
denotes the speaker— sing, number, it implies but one— and in 
the poss. case, it denotes possession, and is gov. by books, 
according to Rule 12. (Repeat the Rule, and decline the pro- 
noun.) Boohs is a noun, the name of a thing— common,&c. 
(parse it in full ;)— and in the nominative case after " are, ac- 
cording to Rule 21. The verb to be admits the same case ajter 

it as before it. . ^'J. 

J EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

Each individual fills a space in creation. Every man helps 
a little. These men rank among the great ones of the world. 
That book belongs to the tutor, this belongs to me. Some men 
labour, others labour not; the former increase in wealth, the 
latter decrease. The boy wounded the old bird, and stole the 
young ones. None performs his duty too well. None of those 
noor wretches complain of their miserable lot. . 

P XtT In parsing the distributive pronominal adjectives, Note 2, under 
Rule 19, should be applied. T ^„, T „ 

III. OF RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 
Relative Pronouns are such as relate, in ge- 
neral, to some word or phrase going before, which 



RELATIVE rRONOUNS. 109 

is called the antecedent. They are who, which, 
and- that. 

The word antecedent, comes from the two Latin words, ante, 
before, and cedo, to go. Hence you perceive, that antecedent 
means, going before ; thus, " The man is happy who lives virtu- 
ously ; This is the lady who relieved my wants ; Thou who 
lovest wisdom, &c. We who speak from experience," &c. 
The relative who, in these sentences, relates to the several 
words, man, lady, thou, and we, which words, you observe, come 
before the relative : they are, therefore, properly called ante- 
cedents. 

The relative is not varied on account of gender, person, or 
number, like a personal pronoun. When we use a personal 
pronoun, in speaking of a man, we say he, and of a woman, 
she ; in speaking of one person or thing, we use a singular 
pronoun, of more than one, a plural, and so on ; but there is 
no such variation of the relative. Who, in the first of the pre- 
ceding examples, relates to an antecedent of the mas. gend. 
third pers. sing. ; in the second, the antecedent is of the fern, 
gend. ; in the third, it is of the second pers. ; and in the fourth, 
it is of the first pers. plur. num. ; and, yet, the relative is in the 
same form in each example. Hence you perceive, that the re- 
lative has no peculiar form to denote its gend. pers. and numb, 
but it always agrees with its antecedent in sense. Thus, when 
I say, The man who writes, who is masculine gend. and sing. ; 
but when I say, The ladies who write, who is feminine, and 
plural. In order to ascertain the gend. pers. and numb, of the 
relative, you must always look at its antecedent. 

Who, Which, and That. 

Who is applied to persons, tvhich to things and 
brutes ; as, " He is a friend who is faithful in ad 
versity ; The bird which sung so sweetly, is 
flown ; This is the tree which produces no fruit." 

That is often used as a relative, to prevent the 
too frequent repetition of who and which. It is 
applied both to persons and things ; as, "He that 
acts wisely, deserves praise ; Modesty is a quality 
that highly adorns a woman." 

NOTES. 
1. Who should never be applied to animals. The following application of it 
is erroneous: — " He is like a beast of prey, who destroys without pity." It 
should be, thai destroys, &c. 

10 



110 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 

2. Who should not be applied to children. It is incorrect to say, " The 
child lohom we have just seen," &c. It should be, " The child that we have 
just seen." 

3. Which may be applied to persons when we wish to distinguish one per- 
son of two, or a particular person among a number of others j as, " Which 
of the two ? Which of them is he ?" 

4. That, in preference to ivho or which, is applied to persons when they 
are qualified by an adjective in the superlative degree, or by the pronominal 
adjective same; as, " Charles XIL, king of Sweden, was one of the greatest 
madmen that the world ever saw ; — He is the same man that we saw before." 

5. That is employed after the interrogative who, in cases like the follow- 
ing j "Who that has any sense of religion, would have argued thus ?" 

When the word ever or soever is annexed to a 
relative pronoun, the combination is called a com- 
pound pronoun ; as, whoever or whosoever, which 
ever or whichsoever, whatever or whatsoever. 

DECLENSION OF THE RELATIVE PRONOUNS, 

SINGULAR AND PLURAL. 

Nom. who, Poss. whose, Obj. whom. 

" whoever, " whosever, " whomever. 

" whosoever, " whosesoever, " whomsoever. 

WJiich and that are indeclinable, except that whose is some- 
times used as the possessive case of which ; as, " Is there any 
other doctrine whose followers are punished ;" that is, the fol 
lowers of which are punished. The use of this license has ob 
tained among our best writers ; but the construction is not to 
be recommended, for it is a departure from a plain principle of 
grammar, namely, who, whose, whom, in their applications 
should be confined to rational beings. 

Tliat may be used as a pronoun, an adjective, and a conjunc- 
tion, depending on the office which it performs in the sentence. 

That is a relative only when it can be changed to who or ivhich 
without destroying the sense ; as, " They that (who) reprove us, 
may be our best friends; From every thing that (which) you see, 
derive instruction." That is a demonstrative adjective, when it 
belongs to, or points out, some particular noun, either express- 
ed or implied ; as, a Return that book ; That belongs to me ; 
Give me that." When that is neither a relative nor an adjec- 
tive pronoun, it is a conjunction ; as, " Take care that every day 
be well employed." The word that ,in this last sentence, can- 
not be changed to who or which without destroying the sense, 
therefore you know it is not a relative pronoun ; neither does it 
point out any particular noun, for which reason you know it is 
not an adjective pronoun ; but it connects the sentence, there- 
fore it is a conjunction. 



RELATIVE PRONOUNS. Ill 

If you pay particular attention to this elucidation of the word 
that, you will find no difficulty in parsing it. When it is a rela- 
tive or an adjective pronoun, it may be known by the signs given ; 
and whenever these signs will not apply to it, you know it is a 
conjunction. 

Some writers are apt to make too free a use of this word. I 
will give you one example of affronted that, which may serve as 
a caution. The tutor said, in speaking of the word that, that 
that that that that lady parsed, was not the that that that gen- 
tleman requested her to analyze. This sentence, though ren- 
dered inelegant by a bad choice of words, is strictly grammatical i 
The first that is a noun ; the second, a conjunction ; the third, 
an adjective pronoun ; the fourth, a noun ; the fifth, a relative 
pronoun ; the sixth, an adjective pronoun ; the seventh, a noun ; 
the eighth, a relative pronoun ; the ninth, an adjective pronoun. 
The meaning of the sentence will be more obvious, if rendered 
thus ; The tutor said, in speaking of the word that, that that that 
which that lady parsed, was not the that which that gentleman 
requested her to analyze. 

WHAT. 
What is generally a compound relative, includ- 
ing both the antecedent and the relative, and is 
equivalent to that which; as, " This is what I 
wanted;" that is, that which, or, the thing which I 
wanted. ' 

What is compounded ofivhich that. These words have been 
contracted and made to coalesce, a part of the orthography of 
Doth being still retained : what — wh[ich — t\hat ; (which-that.) 
Anciently it appeared in the varying forms, tha qua, qua tha, 
qu'tha, quthat, quhat, hwat, and finally what. 
: * What may be used as three kinds of a pronoun, and as an 
interjection. When it is equivalent to that which, the thing which, 
or those things which, it is a compound relative, because it in- 
cludes both the antecedent and the relative ; as, " I will try 
what (that which) can be found in female delicacy ; What you 
recollect with most pleasure, are the virtuous actions of your past 
life ;" that is, those things which you recollect, &c. 

When what is a compound relative, you must always parse it 
as two words ; that is, you must parse the antecedent part as a 
noun, and give it a case ; the relative part you may analyze like 
any other relative, giving it a case likewise. In the first of the 
preceding examples, that, the antecedent part of what, is in the 
obj. case, governed by the verb " will try ;" which, the relative 



112 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 

part, is in the nom. case to " can be found." " I have heard 
what (i. e. that which, or the thing which) has been alleged." 

Whoever and whosoever are also compound relatives, and 
should be parsed like the compound what; as, " Whoever takes 
that oath, is bound to enforce the laws." In this sentence 
whoever is equivalent to he who, or, the man who ; thus, "He 
who takes that oath, is bound," &c. 

Who, which, and what, when used in asking questions, are 
called interrogative pronouns, or relatives of the interrogative 
kind ; as, " Who is he 1 Which is the person 1 What are you 
doing ?" 

Interrogative pronouns have no antecedent ; but they relate 
to the word or phrase which is the answer to the question, for 
their subsequent ; as, " Whom did you see 1 The preceptor. What 
have you done ? Nothing." Antecedent and subsequent are 
opposed to each other in signification. Antecedent means 
preceding, or going before ; and subsequent means following, 
or coming after. What, when used as an interrogative, is never 
compound. 

What, which, and that, when joined to nouns, are specifying 
adjectives, or adjective pronouns, in which situation they have 
no case, but are parsed like adjective pronouns of the demon- 
strative or indefinite kind ; as, " Unto ivhich promise our twelve 
tribes hope to come;" "What misery the vicious endure! 
What havock hast thou made, foul monster, sin !" 

What and which, when joined to nouns in asking questions, 
are denominated interrogative pronominal adjectives ; as, 
" What man is that ] Which mad did he take V* 

What, whatever, and ivhatsoever, which, whichever, and which* 
soever, in constructions like the following, are compound pro- 
nouns, but not compound relatives ; as, " In what character 
Butler was admitted, is unknown ; Give him what name you 
choose ; Nature's care largely endows whatever happy man 
will deign to use her treasures ; Let him take which course, or, 
whichever course he will." These sentences may be rendered 
thus ; " That character, or, the character in which Butler was 
admitted, is unknown; Give him that name, or, the name 
ivhich you choose ; Nature's care endows that happy man who 
will dei<ni, &c; Let him take that course, or the course which 
he will." A compound relative necessarily includes both an an- 
tecedent and a relative. These compounds, you will notice, 
do not include antecedents, the first part of each word being the 
article the, or the adjective pronoun, that; therefore they can- 
not properly be denominated compound relatives.— With regard 
to the word ever annexed to these pronouns, it is a singular tact, 



RELATIVE PRONOUNS. PARSING. 113 

that, as soon as we analyze the word to which it is subjoined, 
ever is entirely excluded from the sentence. 

What is sometimes used as an interjection ; as, " "But what ! 
is thy servant a dog, that he should do this ? What ! rob us of 
our right of suffrage, and then shut us up in dungeons !" 

You have now come to the most formidable obstacle, or, if I 
may so speak, to the most rugged eminence in the path of gram- 
matical science ; but be not disheartened, for, if you can get 
safely over this, your future course will be interrupted with only 
here and there a gentle elevation. It will require close appli- 
cation, and a great deal of sober thinking, to gain a clear con- 
ception of the nature of the relative pronouns, particularly the 
compound relatives, which are not easily comprehended by the 
young learner. As this VIII. lecture is a very important one, 
it becomes necessary for you to read it carefully four or five 
times over before you proceed to commit the following order. 
Whenever you parse, you may spread the compendium before 
you, if you please. 

SYSTEMATICK ORDER OF PARSING. 

The order of parsing a Relative Pronoun, 
Is — a pronoun, and why ? — relative, and why? — 
gender, person, and number, and why ? — Rule : 
case, and why? — Rule. — Decline it. 

" This is the man ivhom we saw." 

Whom is a pronoun, a word used instead of a noun — relative, 
it relates to " man" for its antecedent — mas. gend. third pers. 
sing. num. because the antecedent " man" is with which it 
agrees, according to 

Rule 14. Relative pronouns agree with their antecedents m 
gender, person, and number. Whom is in the objective case, the 
object of the action expressed by the active-transitive verb 
" saw," and governed by it, agreeably to 

Rule 16. When a nominative comes between the relative and 
the verb, the relative is governed by the following verb, or some 
other word in its own member of the sentence. 

Whom, in the objective case, is placed before the verb that 
governs it, according to Note 1, under Rule 16. (Repeat the 
Note, and decline who.) 

" From what is recorded, he appears," &c. 

What is a comp. rel. pron. including both the antecedent and 
the relative, and is equivalent to that which, or the thing which. — 
Thing, the antecedent part of what, is a noun, the name of a 

10* 



114 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 

thing — com. the name of a species — neuter gender, it has no 
sex — third person, spoken of — sing, number, it implies but one — 
and in the obj. case, it is the object of the relation expressed by 
the prep. " from," and gov. by it : Rule 31. (Repeat the 
Rule, and every other Rule to which I refer.) Which, the rela- 
tive part of what, is a pronoun, a word used instead of a noun — 
relative, it relates to " thing" for its antecedent — neut. gender, 
third person, sing, number, because the antecedent " thing" is 
with which it agrees, according to Rule 14. Rel. pron. &c. 
Which is in the nom. case to the verb " is recorded," agreeably to 
Rule 15. The relative is the nominative case to the verb, 
when no nominative comes between it and the verb, 

" What have you learned? Nothing." 
What is a pron. a word used, &c. — relative of the interroga- 
tive kind, because it is used in asking a question — it refers to 
the word " nothing" for its subsequent, according to 

Rule 17. When the rel. pron. is of the interrog. kind, it re- 
fers to the word or phrase containing the answer to the question, 
for its subsequent, which subsequent must agree in case with the 
interrogative. What is of the neut. gen. third per. sing, because 
the subsequent " nothing" is with which it agrees ; Rule 14. 
Rel. pron. agree, &c. — It is in the objective case, the object oi 
the action, of the active- transitive verb " have learned," and 
gov. by it, agreeably to Rule 16. When a nom. &c. See 
Note 1, under the Rule. 

Note 1. You need not apply gend. pers. and numb, to the interrogative 
when the answer to the question is not expressed. 

WHO, WHICH, WHAT. 

Truth and simplicity are twin sisters, and generally go hand in 
hand. The foregoing exposition of the " relative pronouns," is 
in accordance with the usual method of treating them ; but if they 
were unfolded according to their true character, they would be 
found to be very simple, and, doubtless, much labour and per- 
plexity, on the part of the learner, would thereby be saved. 

Of the words called " relatives," who, only, is a pronoun; and 
this is strictly personal ; more so, indeed; if we except /and we, 
than any other word in our language, for it is always restricted 
v o persons. It ought to be classed with the personal pronouns. 
J, thou, he, she, it, we, you, and they, relate to antecedents, as 
well as who. Which, that, and what, are always adjectives. 
They never stand for, but always belong to, nouns, either ex- 
pressed or implied. They specify, like many other adjectives, 
and connect sentences. 

Who supplies the place of which or what, and its personal 



RELATIVE PRONOUNS. PARSING. 



115 



noun. Who came? i. e. what man, what woman, what person ; 
—which man, woman, or person, came ? " They heard what I 
said"— they heard that (thing) which (thing) I said. " Take 
what (or whichever) course you please ;"— take that course 
which (course) you please to take. " What have you done ?" 
i e what thing, act, or deed have you done ? " Which thing 
I also did at "Jerusalem." " Which will you take " —which 
book, hat, or something else. " This is the tree ivhich (tree) 
produces no fruit." " He that (man, or which man) acts wise- 
ly deserves praise." 

They who prefer this method of treating the " relatives," are 
at liberty to adopt it, and parse accordingly. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

The man who instructs you, labours faithfully. The boy 
whom I instruct, learns well. The lady whose house we occu- 
py, bestows many charities. That modesty which highly adorns 
a woman, she possesses. He that acts wisely deserves praise. 
This is the tree which produces no fruit. I believe what he 
says. He speaks what he knows. Whatever purifies the 
heart, also fortifies it. What doest* thou ? Nothing. What 
book have you ? A poem. Whose hat have you ? John's. 
Who does that work ? Henry. Whom seest thou ? To whom 
gave you the present ? Which pen did he take ? Whom ye 
ignorantly worship, him declare I unto you. I heard what he 
said. George, you may pursue whatever science suits your 
taste. Eliza, take whichever pattern pleases you best. Whoever 
lives to see this republick forsake her moral and literary institu- 
tions, will behold her liberties prostrated. Whosoever, there- 
fore, will be a friend of the world, is the enemy of God. 

NOTE. The nominative case is frequently placed after the verb, and the 
objective case, before the verb that governs it. Whom, in every sentence ex- 
cept one, house, modesty, book, hat, pen, him, the third what and which, the re- 
lative part of the first two whats, are all in the objective case and governed 
by the several verbs that follow them. See Rule 16, and Note 1. Treeis 
nom. after is, according to Rule 21. Thing, the antecedent part of whatever, 
is nom. to " fortifies;" which, the relative part, is nom. to " purifies." JW 
thing is governed by do, and poem, by have, understood. Henry is nomina- 
tive to does, understood. Whose and John's are governed according to Rule 
12. J, thou, you, him, &c. represent nouns understood. Him, in the last sen- 
tence but five, is governed by declare, and lis nominative to declare. George 
and Eliza are in the nominative case independent : Rule 5. " Whatever 
science," Sac. is equivalent to, that science which suits your taste ; — "which- 
ever pattern ;" i. e. that pattern which pleases you best. Whoever is a com- 

* The second person singular of do, when used as a principal verb, is 
spelled with an e ; thus, " What thou doest, do quickly ;" but when employ- 
ed as an auxiliary, the e should be omitted ; as, "Dost thou not behold a rock 
with its head of heath ?" 



116 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 

pound relative ; he, the antecedent part, is nominative to " will behold." 
Take agrees with you understood. Forsake is in the infinitive mood after 
"see:" Rule 25. 

REMARKS ON RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 

Which sometimes relates to a member of a sentence, or to a whole sen- 
tence, for its antecedent : as, "We are required to fear God and keep his 
commandments, which is the whole duty of man." What is the whole duty 
of man ? " To fear God and keep his commandments :" therefore, this phrase 
is the antecedent to lohich. 

The conjunction as, when it follows such, many, or same, is frequently de- 
nominated a relative pronoun ; as, " I am pleased with such as have a refined 
taste ;" that is, with those tvho, or them who have, &c. " Let such as presume 
to advise others, look well to their own conduct ;" that is, Let those, or them 
who presume, &c. "As many as were ordained to eternal life, believed ;" that 
is, they, those, or all who were ordained, believed. " He exhibited the same 
testimonials as were adduced on a former occasion ;" that is, those testimo- 
nials which were adduced, &c. But, in examples like these,_if we supply the 
ellipsis which a critical analysis requires us to do, as will be found to be a 
conjunction ; thus, " I am pleased with such persons, as those persons are who 
have a refined taste *, Let such persons, as those persons are who presume," &c- 

QUESTIONS NOT ANSWERED IN PARSING. 

Prom what words is the term pronoun derived]- Do pro- 
nouns always avoid the repetition of nouns ? — Name the three 
kinds of pronouns. — What distinguishes the personal from the 
relative pronouns ? — How many personal pronouns are there ? 
— Repeat them. — What belong to pronouns ? — Is gender ap- 
plied to all the personal pronouns ? — To which of them is it 
applied? — Which of the personal pronouns have no peculiar 
termination to denote their gender ? — How many persons have 
pronouns ? — Speak them in their different persons. — How ma- 
ny numbers have pronouns ? — How many cases ? — What are 
they? — Decline all the personal pronouns. — When self is added 
to the personal pronouns, what are they called, and how are 
they used ? — When is you singular in sense ? — Is it ever singu- 
lar in form ? — Why are the words, my, thy, his, her, our, your, 
their, called personal pronouns ? — Why are the words, mine, 
thine, his, hers, oars, yours, theirs, denominated compound pers. 
pron.? — How do you parse these compounds ? — What is said 
of others ?— Repeat the order of parsing a personal pronoun. — 
What rule do you apply in parsing a pronoun of the first person, 
and in the nom. case ? — What Rule when the pronoun is in the 
possessive case ? — What Rules apply in parsing personal pro- 
nouns of the second and third person? — What Rules in parsing 
the compounds, tjours, ours, mine, &c? — What is said of the 
pronoun it ? 

What are adjective pronouns ? — Name the three kinds. 

What does each relate to? — To what does every relate? 

—To what does either relate ? — What does neither import ?— 



PRONOUNS. FALSE SYNTAX. 117 

To what do this and these refer ? — Give examples. — To what 
do that and those refer ? — Give examples. — Repeat all the ad- 
jective pronouns. When adj. pronouns belong to nouns under- 
stood, how are they parsed ? — When they stand for, or represent 
nouns, what are they called ? — Give examples. — Repeat the 
order of parsing an adj. pronoun. — What Rule do you apply in 
parsing the indefinite adjective pronouns? — What Notes, in 
parsing the distributives and demonstratives 1 

What are relative pronouns ? — Repeat them. — From what 
words is the term antecedent derived 1 — What does antecedent 
mean? — Are relatives varied on account of gender, person, or 
number ? — To what are who and which applied ? — To what is 
that applied ? — Should who ever be applied to irrational beings 
or children ? — In what instances may which be applied to per- 
sons ? — Decline the rel. pronouns. — Can which and that be de- 
clined? — Is that ever used as three parts of speech? — Give 
examples. — What part of speech is the word ivhat ? — Is what 
ever used as three kinds of a pronoun? — Give examples. — What 
is said of whoever? — What words are used as interrogative 
pronouns ? — Give examples. — When are the words, what, which, 
and that, called adj. pron.? — When are they called interroga- 
tive pronominal adjectives ? — What is said of whatever and 
whichever? — Is what ever used as an interjection? — Give exam- 
ples. — Repeat the order of parsing a rel. pron.- — What Rules do 
you apply in parsing a relative? — What Rules in parsing a com- 
pound relative ? — What Rules in parsing an interrogative ? — 
feoes the relative which ever relate to a sentence for its ante- 
cedent ? — When does the conjunction as become a relative ? — 
Give examples. 

EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX. 

Note 1, to Rule 13. When a noun or pronoun is the sub- 
ject of a verb, it must be in the nominative case. 
Who will go ? Him and I. How does thee do ? Is thee well? 

"Him and I ;" not proper, because the pronoun him is the subject of the 
verb will go understood, therefore him should be in the nominative case, Ae, 
according to the above Note. (Repeat the Note.) Him and J are connect- 
ed by the conjunction and, and him is in the obj. case, and J in the nom., 
therefore Rule 33d, is violated. (Repeat the Rule.) In the second and third 
examples, thee should be thou, according to the Note. The verbs, does and 
is, are of the third person, and the nom. thou is second, for which reason the 
verbs should be of the second person, dest do and art, agreeably to Rule 4. 
You may correct the other examples, four times over. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Him and me went to town yesterday. Thee must be atten- 
tive. Him who is careless, will not improve. They can write 



113 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 

as well as me. This is the man whom was expected. Her 
and I deserve esteem. I have made greater proficiency than 
him. Whom, of all my acquaintances, do you think was there. 
Whom, for the sake of his important services, had an office oi 
honour bestowed upon him. 

Note 2, to Rule 13. Personal pronouns being used to sup- 
ply the place of nouns, should not be employed in the same 
member of the sentence with the noun which they represent. 
FALSE SYNTAX. 

The men they are there. I saw him the king. Our cause 
it is just. Many words they darken speech. That noble gene- 
ral who had gained so many victories, he died, at last, in prison. 
Who, instead of going about doing good, they are continually 
doing evil. 

In each of the preceding examples, the personal pronoun should be omit- 
ted, according to Note 2. 

Note 3, to Rule 13. A personal pronoun in the objective 
case, should not be used instead of these and those. 
FALSE SYNTAX. 

Remove them papers from the desk. Give me then books. 
Give them men their discharge. Observe them three there. 
Which of them two persons deserves most credit. 

In all these examples, those should be used in place of them. The use of 
the personal, them, in such constructions, presents two objectives after -one 
verb or preposition. This is a solecism which may be avoided by employing 
an adjective pronoun in its stead. 



LECTURE IX. 

OF CONJUNCTIONS. 

A Conjunction is a part of speech that is 
chiefly used to connect sentences, joining two or 
more simple sentences into one compound sen- 
tence : it sometimes connects only words ; as, 
" Thou and he are happy, because you are good." 

Conjunctions are those parts of language, which, by joining 
sentences in different ways, mark the connexions and various de- 
pendances of human thought.. They belong to language only 
in its refined state. 



CONJUNCTIONS. 119 

The term Conjunction comes from the two Latin words, 
con, which signifies together, and jungo, to join. A conjunction, 
then, is a word that conjoins, or joins together something. Be- 
fore you can fully comprehend the nature and office of this sort 
of words, it is requisite that you should know what is meant by a 
sentence, a simple sentence, and a compound sentence, for con- 
junctions are chiefly used to connect sentences. 

A Sentence is an assemblage of words form- 
ing complete sense, 

A Simple Sentence contains but one subject, 
or nominative, and one verb which agrees with 
that nominative ; as, " Wheat groivs in the field." 

You perceive that this sentence contains several words besides 
the nominative and the verb, and you will often see a simple sen- 
tence containing many parts of speech ; but, if it has only one 
nominative and one finite verb, (that is, a verb not in the infinitive 
mood,) it is a simple sentence, though it is longer than many 
compound sentences. 

A Compound Sentence is composed of two or 
more simple sentences connected together ; as, 
" Wheat grows in the field, and men reap it." 

This sentence is compound, because it is formed of two sim- 
ple sentences joined together by the word and; which word, on 
account of its connecting power, is called a conjunction. If 
v/e write this sentence without the conjunction, it becomes two 
simple sentences: thus, "Wheat grows in the field. Men 
reap it." 

The nature and importance of the conjunction, are easily 
illustrated. After expressing one thought or sentiment, you 
know we frequently wish to add another, or several others, 
which are closely connected with it. We generally effect this 
addition by means of the conjunction : thus, "The Georgians 
cultivate rice and cotton ;" that is, " They cultivate rice, add cot- 
ton." This sentence is compound, and without the use of the 
conjunction, it would be written in two separate, simple sen- 
tences : thus, " The Georgians cultivate rice. They cultivate 
cotton." The conjunction, though chiefly used to connect sen- 
tences, sometimes connects only words ; in which capacity it is 
nearly allied to the preposition ; as, " The sun and (add) the 
planets constitute the solar system." In this, which is a simple 
sentence, and connects two xoords. 

A few more examples will illustrate me nature, and exhibit 



120 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 

the use of this part of speech so clearly, as to enable you fully 
to comprehend it. The following simple sentences and mem- 
bers of sentences, have no relation to each other until they are 
connected by conjunctions. He labours harder — more success- 
fully — I do. That man is healthy — he is temperate. By filling 
up the vacancies in these sentences with conjunctions, you will 
see the importance of this sort of words : thus, He labours 
harder and more successfully than I do. That man is healthy 
because he is temperate. 

Conjunctions are divided into two sorts, the 
Copulative and the Disjunctive. 

I. The Conjunction Copulative serves to con- 
nect and continue a sentence by joining on a 
member which expresses an addition, a suppo- 
sition, or a cause ; as, " Two and three are 
five ; I will go if he will accompany me ; You 
are happy because you are good." 

In the first of these examples, and joins on a word that ex- 
presses an addition ; in the second, if connects a member thai 
implies a supposition or condition ; and in the third, because con- 
nects a member that expresses a cause. 

II. The Conjunction Disjunctive serves to 
connect and continue a sentence by joining on 
a member that expresses opposition of meaning ; 
as, "They came with her, but they went away 
without her." 

But joins on a member of this sentence which expresses, not 
only something added, but, also, opposition of meaning. 

The principal conjunctions may be known by the following 
lists, which you may now commit to memory. Some words in 
these lists, are, however, frequently used as adverbs, and some- 
times as prepositions ; but if you study well the nature of all the 
different sorts of words, you cannot be at a loss to tell the part 
of speech of any word in the language. ^^ 

PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES. 

On scientific!* principles, our connectives, commonly denominated preposi- 
tions and conjunctions, are but one part of speech, the distinction between 
them being merely technical. Some conjunctions unite only words, and 
some prepositions connect sentences. They are derived from nouns and 
verbs ; and the time has been, when, perhaps, in our language, they did not 
perform the office of connectives. ,„.„■« « „ TT • 4U* 

" I wish you to believe, that I would not wilfully hurt a fly." Here, in tlte 



CONJUNCTIONS. 121 

LISTS OF THE CONJUNCTIONS. 

Copulative. And, if, that, both, then, since, for, 
because, therefore, wherefore, provided, besides. 

Disjunctive. But, or, nor, as, than, lest, though, 
unless, either, neither, yet, notwithstanding, ne- 
vertheless, except, whether, whereas, as well as. 

Some conjunctions are followed by corresponding conjunc- 
tions, so that, in the subsequent member of the sentence, the 
latter answers to the former ; as, 

1. Though — yet or nevertheless ; as, " Tlioughhe was rich, 
yet for our sakes he became poor." 

2. Whether — or; as, " Whether he will go, or not, I cannot 
tell." It is improper to say, " Whether he will go or no." 

3. Either — or; as, "I will either send it, or bring it my- 
self." 

4. Neither — nor; as, " Neither thou nor I can comprehend 
it." 

5. As— -as ; as, " She is as amiable as her sister." 

6. As — so ; as, " As the stars, so shall thy seed be." 

7. So — as ; as/ " To see thy glory, so as I have seen thee in 
the sanctuary." 

8. So — that; as, "He became so vain, that every one dis- 
liked him." 

NOTES. 

1. Some conjunctions are used to connect simple sentences only, and form 
them into compound sentences ; such as, further, again, besides, &c. Others 
are employed to connect simple members only, so as to make them compound 
members; such as, than, lest, unless, that, so that, if, though, yet, because, 
as well as, &c. But, and, therefore, or, nor, for, &c, connect either whole 
sentences, or simple members. 

2. Relative pronouns, as well as conjunctions, serve to connect sentences; 
as, " Blessed is the man icAo-feareth the Lord, and keepeth his command- 
ments." 

opinion of H. Tooke, our modern conjunction that, is merely a demonstrative 
adjective, in a disguised form ; and he attempts to prove it by the following 
resolution : " I would not wilfully hurt a fly. I wish you to believe that [as- 
sertion."] Now, if we admit, that that is an adjective in the latter construc- 
tion, it does not necessarily follow, that it is the same part of speech, nor 
that its associated meaning is precisely the same, in the former construction. 
Instead of expressing our ideas in two detached sentences, by the former 
phraseology we have a quicker and closer transition of thought, and both 
the mode of emp oying that, and its inferential meaning, arc changed. More- 
over, if wc examine the meaning of each of these constructions, taken as a 
whole, we shall find, that they do not both convey the same ideas. By the 
latter, I assert, positively, that " I would not wilfully hurt a fly ;" whereas, 
by the former, I merely icish you to believe that " I would not wilfully hurt a 
fly ;" but I do not affirm that as a fact. 

That being the past part, of thean, to get, take, assume, by rendering it as 

11 



122 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 

You will now please to turn back and read this lecture four or 
five times over ; and then, after committing the following order, 
you may parse the subsequent exercises. 

SYSTEMATICK ORDER OF PARSING. 
The order of parsing a Conjunction, is — a 
conjunction, and why ? — copulative or disjunctive, 
and why? — what does it connect ? 

" Wisdom and virtue form the good man's character." 

And is a conjunction, a word that is chiefly used to connect 
sentences ; but in this example it connects only words — copula- 
tive, it serves to connect and continue the sentence by joining 
on a member which expresses an addition — it connects the words 
" wisdom and virtue." 

Wisdom is a noun, the name of a thing— (You may parse it in 
full.) — Wisdom is one of the nominatives to the verb " form." 

Virtue is a noun, the name, &c. — (Parse it in full:) — and in 
the nom. case to the verb " form," and connected to the noun 
"wisdom" by and, according to 

Rule 33. Conjunctions connect nouns and pronouns in the 
same case. 

Form is a verb, a word which signifies t© do, &c. — of the third 
person, plural, because its two nominatives, " wisdom and vir- 
tue," are connected by a copulative conjunction, agreeably to 

Rule 8. Two or more nouns in the singular number, joined 
by copulative conjunctions, must have verbs, nouns, and pronouns 
agreeing with them in the plural. 

" Wisdom or folly governs us." 

Or is a conjunction, a word that is chiefly used to connect 
sentences : it sometimes connects words— disjunctive, it serves 
not only to connect and continue the sentence, but also to join 
on a member which expresses opposition of meaning — it connects 
the nouns " wisdom and folly." 

a participle, instead of an adjective, we should come nearer to its* primitive 
character. Thus, " I would not wilfully hurt a fly. I wish you to believe the 
assumed [fact or statement ;] or, the fact assumed or taken." 

If, (formerly written gif give, gin,) as previously stated, is the imperative 
of the Anglo-Saxon verb gif an, to give. In imitation of Home Tooke, some 
of our modern philosophical writers are inclined to teach pupils to render it 
an a verb. Thus, " I will go, if he will accompany me :" — " He will accom- 
pany me. Grant — give that [fact] I will go.'* For the purpose of ascertain- 
ing the primitive meaning of this word, I have no objection to such a reso- 
lution ; but, by it, do we get the exact meaning and force of if as it is ap- 
plied in our modern, refined state of the language? I trow not, But, admit- 
ting we do, does this prove that such a mode of resolving sentences can be 
advantageously adopted bv learners in common schools ? 1 presume it can- 



CONJUNCTIONS. — 'PARSING. 123 

Governs is a verb, a word that signifies, &c. — of the third 
person, singular number, agreeing with "wisdom or folly," ac- 
cording to . 

Rule 9. Two or ir*ore nouns singular, joined by disjunctive 
conjunctions, must have verbs, nouns, and pronouns agreeing with 
them in the singular. 

If you reflect, for a few moments, on the meaning of the last 
two Rules presented, you will see, at once, their propriety and 
importance. For example; in the sentence, " Orlando and 
Thomas, who study their lessons, make rapid progress," you 
notice that the two singular nouns, Orlando and Thomas, are con- 
nected by the copulative conjunction and, therefore the verb 
make, which agrees with them, is plural, because it expresses 
the action of both its nominatives or actors. And you observe, 
too, that the pronouns who and their, and the noun lessons, are 
•plural, agreeing with the nouns Orlando and Thomas, according 
to Rule 8. The verb study is plural, agreeing with who, ac- 
cording to Rule 4. 

But let us connect these two nouns by a disjunctive conjunc- 
tion, and see how the sentence will read : " Orlando or Thomas, 
who studies his lesson, makes rapid progress." Now, you per 
ceive, that a different construction takes place, for the latter ex 
pression does not imply, that Orlando and Thomas, both study 
and make rapid progress ; but it asserts, that either the one or 
the other studies, and makes rapid progress. Hence the verb 
makes is>singular, because it expresses the action of the one or 
the other of its nominatives. And you observe, too, that the 
pronouns who and his, and the noun lesson, are likewise in the 
singular, agreeing with Orlando or Thomas, agreeably to Rule 
9. Stidies is also singular, agreeing with who, according to 
Rule 4. 



not be denied, that instead of teaching the learner to express himself cor- 
rectly in modern English, such a resolution is merely making him familiar 
with an ancient and barbarous construction which modern, refinement has 
rejected. Our forefathers, I admit, who were governed by those laws of ne- 
cessity which compel all nations in the early and rude state of their language, 
to express themselves in short, detached sentences, employed i/asaverb 
when they used the following circumlocution : " My son will reform. Give 
that fact. I will forgive him." But in the present, improved state of our lan- 
guage, by using i/as a. conjunction, (for I maintain that it is one,) we express 
the same thought more briefly ; and our modern mode of expression has, too, 
a decided advantage over the ancient, not only in point of elegance, but also 
in perspicuity and force. In Scotland and the north of England, some peo- 
ple still make use of gin, a contraction of given : thus, * I will pardon my 
son, gin he reform.' But who will contend, that they speak pure English ? 
But perhaps the advocates of what they call a philosophical development 
of language, will say, that by their resolution of sentences, they merely sup- 



124 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

Joseph and his brother reside in New- York. The sun, moon, 
and stars, admonish us of a superiour and superintending Power. 
I respect my friend, because he is upright and obliging. Henry 
and William, who obey their teacher, improve rapidly. Henry 
or William, who obeys his teacher, improves very fast. Neither 
rank nor possession makes the guilty mind happy. Wisdom, 
virtue, and meekness, form the good man's happiness and inte- 
rest : they support him in adversity, and comfort him in pros- 
perity. Man is a little lower than the angels. The United 
States, as justly as Great Britain, can now boast of their literary 
institutions. 

Note. The verb form is plural, and agrees with three nouns singular, 
connected by copulative conjunctions, according to Rule 8. The verb com- 
fort agrees with they for its nominative. It is connected to support by the 
conjunction and, agreeably to Rule 34. tftngels is nom. to are understood, 
and Great Britain is nom. to can boast understood, according to Rule 35. 

REMARKS ON CONJUNCTIONS AND PREPOSITIONS. 

The same word is occasionally employed, either as a conjunction, an ad- 
verb, or a preposition. " I submitted, for it was in vain to resist ;" in this 
example, for is a conjunction, because it connects the two members of a 
compound sentence. In the next it is a preposition, and governs victory in 
the objective case : "He contended for victory only." 

til the first of the following sentences, since is a conjunction ; in the se- 
cond, it is a preposition, and in the third,, an adverb ; " Since we must part, 
let us do it peaceably ; I have not seen him since that time ; Our friendship 
commenced long since." 

" He will repent before he dies ; Stand before me ; Why did you not re- 
turn before" [that or this time;] in the first of these three examples, before is 
an adverbial conjunction, because it expresses time and connects ; and in 
the second and third, it is a preposition. 

As the words of a sentence are often transposed, so are also its members. 
Without attending to this circumstance, the learner may sometimes be at a 
loss to perceive the connecting power of a preposition or conjunc tion, for 
every preposition and every conjunction connects either words or phrases, 
sentences or members of sentences. Whenever a sentence begins with a 
preposition or conjunction, its members are transposed ; as, " In the days of 
Joram, king of Israel, flourished the prophet Elisha ;" "If thou seek the 
Lord, he will be found of thee ; but, if thou forsake him, he will cast thee oft 
for ever." 



ply an ellipsis. If, by an ellipsis, they mean such a one as is necessary to 
the grammatical construction, I cannot accede to their assumption. In 
teaching grammar, as well as in other things, we ought to avoid extremes:— 
we ought neither to pass superficially over an ellipsis necessary to the sense 
•of a phrase, nor to put modern English to the blush, by adopting a mode of 
resolving sentences that would entirely change the character of our lan- 
guage, and carry the learner back to the Vandalick age. 

But comes from the Saxon verb, beon-utan, to be-out. "All were well bw 
(be-out, leave-out) the stranger." " Man is but a reed, floating on the current 
of time." Resolution : " Man is a reed, floating on the current of time ; bin 
(be-out this fact) he is not a stable being." 

J&nd—aned, arid, and, is the past part, of ananad, to add, join. Jl, an, ane t 



CONJUNCTIONS. 



125 



" When coldness wraps this suffering clay, 
" Ah, whither strays the immortal mind ?" 
That the words in, if, and when, in these examples, connect the members 
of the respective sentences to which they are attached, will obviously appear 
if we restore these sentences to their natural order, and bring these particles 
between the members which thev connect: thus, " Elisha the prophet flou. « 
ished in the days of Joram king of Israel ;" "The Lord will be found of thee 
i/ thou seek him ; but he will cast thee off for ever i/thou forsake him : 
" Ah, whither strays the immortal mind, 
" When coldness wraps this suffering clay ?" 

As an exercise on this lecture, you may now answer these 

QUESTIONS NOT ANSWERED IN PARSING. 

From what words is the term conjunction derived? — What is 
a sentence? — What is a simple sentence? — What is a compound 
sentence? — Give examples. — In what respect do conjunctions 
and prepositions agree in their nature? — How many sorts oi 
conjunctions are there? — Repeat the lists of conjunctions. — Re- 
peat some conjunctions with their corresponding conjunctions. — 
Do relative pronouns ever connect sentences? — Repeat the or- 
der of parsing a conjunction. — Do you apply any Rule in pars- 
ing a conjunction? — What Rule should be applied in parsing a 
noun or pronoun connected with another? — What Rule in pars- 
ing a verb agreeing with two or more nouns singular, connected 
by a copulative conjunction? — What Rule when the nouns are 
connected by a disjunctive ? — In parsing a verb connected to 
another by a conjunction, what Rule do you apply ? — Is a con- 
junction ever used as other parts of speech? — Give examples. — 
What is said of the words for, since, and before ? — What is said 
of the transposition of sentences? 

or one, from the same verb, points out whatever is aned, oned, or made one* 
And also refers to the thing that is joined to, added to, or made one with, some 
other person or thing mentioned. "Julius and Harriet will make a happy 
pair." Resolution : "Julius, Harriet joined, united, or aned, will make a hap- 
py pair ;" i. e. Harriet made one with Julius, will make a happy pair. 

For means cause. 

Because — be-cause, is a compound of the verb be, and the noun cause. It 
retains the meaning of both ; as, " I believe the maxim, for I know it to be 
true ;" — " I believe the maxim, be-cause I know it to be true j" i. e. the cause 
of my belief, be, or is, I know it to be true. 

Nor is a contraction of ne or. Ne is a contraction of not, and or, of other. 
Nor is, not other-wise : not in the othei way or manner. 

Else is the imperative of ales an, unless, of onlesan, and lest, the past part, of 
lesan, all signifying to dismiss, release, loosen, set free. " He will be punish- 
ed, unless he repent ;"—" Unless, release, give up (the fact) he repents, he will 
be punished." 

Though is the imperative of the Saxon verb thajigan, to allow, and yet, of 
getan, to get. Yet is simply, get ; ancient g is our modern y. " Though he slay 
me, yet wiU I trust in him : — Grant or allow (the fact) he slay me, get, or re- 
tain (the opposite fact) I will trust in him." 

11* 



126 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 

QUESTIONS ON THE PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES. 

From what parts of speech are prepositions and conjunctions derived ? 

What is Horne Tooke's opinion of that ?— From what i's each of the follow- 
ing words derived, that, if, but, and, because, nor, else, unless, lest, though, and 
yet j 



LECTURE X. 

OF INTERJECTIONS.— CASES OF NOUNS. 

Interjections are words which express the 
sudden emotions of the speaker ; as, " Alas ! I 
fear for life;" " O death ! where is thy sting?" 

Interjections are not so much the signs of thought, as oi 
feeling. Almost any word may be used as an interjection ; but 
when so employed, it is not the representative of a. distinct idea. 
A word which denotes a distinct conception of the mind, must 
necessarily belong to some other part of speech. They who 
wish to speak often, or rather,to make noises, when they have 
no useful information to communicate, are apt to use words very 
freely in this way; such as the following expressions, la, la me, 
my, O my, O dear, dear me, surprising, astonishing, and the 
like. 

Interjections not included in the following list, are generally 
known by their taking an exclamation point after them. 
A LIST OF THE PRINCIPAL INT-ERJECTIONS. 

1. Of earnestness or grief ; as, O ! oh! ah! alas! 

2. Contempt ; as, Pish ! tush ! 

3. Wonder; as, Heigh! really! strange! 

— 

PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES. 

The term Interjection is applied to those inarticulate sounds employed 
both by men and brutes, not to express distinct ideas, but emotions, pas- 
sions, or feelings. The sounds employed by human beings in groaning, 
sighing, crying, screaming, shrieking, and laughing, by the dog in barking, 
growling, and whining, by the horse in snorting and neighing, by the sheep 
in bleating, by the cat in mewing, by the dove in cooing, by the duck in 
quacking, and. by the g osein hissing, we sometimes attempt to represent 
by words ; but, as written words are the ocular representatives of articulate 
sounds, they cannot be made clearly to denote inarticulate or indistinct 
noises. Such indistinct utterances belong to natural language ; but they 
fall below the bounds of regulated speech. Hence, real interjections are 
not a part of written language. 



INTERJECTIONS. PARSING. 127 

4. Calling ; as, Hem ! ho ! halloo ! 

5. Disgust or aversion ; as, Foh ! fy ! fudge ! away ! 

6. Attention ; as, Lo ! behold ! hark ! 

7. Requesting silence ; as, Hush ! hist ! 

8. Salutation; as, Welcome! hail! all hail ! 

Note. We frequently meet with what some call an interjective phrase; 
ch as, Ungrateful wretch! impudence of hope ! foUy in the extreme! what 

atitude ! away with him ! 

As the interjection is the least important part of speech in the 
English language, it will require but little attention. You may, 
however, make yourself well acquainted with what has been 
said respecting it, and then commit the 

SYSTEMATICK ORDER OF PARSING. 
The order of parsing an Interjection, is — 
an interjection, and why ? 

"O virtue ! how amiable thou art !" 
O is an interjection, a word used to express some passion oi 
emotion of the speaker. 

The ten parts of speech have now been unfolded and eluci- 
dated, although some of them have not been fully explained. 
Before you proceed any farther, you will please to begin again 
at the first lecture, and read over, attentively, the whole, observ- 
ing to parse every example in the exercises systematically. You 
will then be able to parse the following exercises, which contain 
all the parts of speech. If you study faithfully six hours in a 
day, and pursue the directions given, you may become, if not a 
critical, at least, a good, practical grammarian, in six iveeks ; 
but if you study only three hours in a day, it will take you 
nearly three months to acquire the same knowledge. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

True cheerfulness makes a man happy in himself, and pro- 
motes the happiness of all around him. 

Modesty always appears graceful in youth : it doubles the 
lustre of every virtue which it seems to hide. 

The meaning of those words commonly called interjections, is easily 
shown by tracing them to their roots. 

Pish and pshaw are the Anglo-Saxon paec, paeca; and are equivalent to 
trumpery ! i. e. tremperie, from tromper. 

Fy or fie is the imperative, foe, the past tense, and foh or faugh, the past 
part, of the Saxon verb fian, to hate. 

Lo is the imperative of look. Halt is the imperative of healden, to hold, 
Farewell — fare-well, is a compound of faran, to go, and the adverb well. It 
means, to go well. Welcome — well-come, signifies, it is well that you are 
come. Adieu comes from the French a Dieu. to God : meaning, I commend 
youfo God. 



128 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 

He who, every morning, plans the transactions of the day, 
and follows out thai plan, carries on a thread that will guide him 
through the labyrinth of the most busy life. 

The king gave me a generous reward for committing that 
barbarous act ; but, alas ! I fear the consequence. 
E'en now, where Alpine solitudes ascend, 
I set me down a pensive hour to spend ; 
And, placed on high, above the storm's career, 
Look downward where a hundred realms appear: — 
Alas ! the joys that fortune brings, 

Are trifling, and decay ; 
And those who mind the paltry things, 
More trifling still than they. 

Note. In the second sentence of the foregoing exercises, tohich is gov- 
erned by the verb to hide, according to Rule 16. He is nom. to carries; 
who is nom. to plans. Folloios agrees with who understood, and is connected 
to plans by and; Rule 34. What did the king give ? A reward to me. Then 
reiuard is in the obj. case, gov. by gave; Rule 20. Me is gov. by to under- 
stood ; Note 1, Rule 32. The phrase, committing that barbarous act, is gov, 
by for; Note 2, under Rule 28. Hour is in the obj. case, gov. by to spend; 
iIule 20. Look is connected to set by and; Rule 34. Joys is nom. to are 
That is gov. by brings ; Rule 16. Those is nom. to are understood. They 
is nom. to are understood ; Rule 35. 

CASES OF NOUNS. 

In a former lecture, I promised to give you a more extensive 
explanation of the cases of nouns ; and, as they are, in many 
situations, a little difficult to be ascertained, I will now offer 
some remarks on this subject. But before you proceed, I wish 
you to parse all the examples in the exercises just presented, 
observing to pay particular attention to the remarks in the sub- 
joined Note. Those remarks will assist you much in analyzing. 

A noun is sometimes nominative to a verb placed many lines 
after the noun. You must exercise your judgment in this matter. 
Look at the sentence in the preceding exercises beginning with, 
"He who, every morning," &c. and see if you can find the verb 
to which he is nominative. What does he do? He carries on 
a thread, &c. He, then, is nominative to the verb carries. 
What does who do 1 Who plans, and who follows, &c. Then 
who is nom. to plans, and who understood, is nominative to 
follows. 

" A soul without reflection, like a pile 
" Without inhabitant, to ruin runs." 
In order to find the verb to which the noun soul, in this sen- 
tence, is the nominative, put the question ; What does a soul 
without reflection do % Such a soul runs to ruin, like a pile 



NOM. CASE INDEPENDENT, ABSOLUTE. 12D 

without inhabitant. Thus you discover, that soul is nominative 
to runs* 

When the words of a sentence are arranged according to theii 
natural order, the nominative case, you recollect, is placed be 
fore the verb, and the objective, after it ; but when the words of 
a sentence are transposed ; that is, not arranged according to 
their natural order, it frequently happens, that the nominative 
comes after, and the objective, before the verb ; especially in 
poetry, or when a question is asked : as, " Whence arises the 
misery of the present world 1" "What good thing shall I do to 
inherit eternal life V* Put these expressions in the declarative 
form, and the nominative will precede, and the objective follow 
its verb : thus, " The miserly of the present world arises whence ; 
I shall do what good thing to inherit eternal life." 

" Now came still evening on, and twilight gray 
" Had, in her sober livery, all things clad." 

" Stern rugged nurse, thy rigid lore 

" With patience many a year she bore." 

What did the evening do 1 The evening came on. Gray hoi- 
iight had clad what 1 Twilight had clad all things in her sobei 
livery. livening, then, is nom. to came, and the noun things is 
in the objective case, and gov. by had clad : Rule 20. What 
did she bear ? She bore thy rigid lore with patience, for, or dur- 
ing, many a year. Hence you find, that lore is in the objective 
case, and governed by bore, according to Rule 20. Year is 
gov. by during understood : Rule 32. 

A noun is frequently nominative to a verb understood, or in 
the objective, and governed by a verb understood ; as, " Lo, 
[there is] the poor Indian ! whose untutored mind." " O, the 
pain [there is !] the bliss [there is] in dying !" " All were 
sunk, but the wakeful nightingale [was not sunk.""] " He 
thought as a sage [thinks,'] though he felt as a man [feels."] 
" His hopes, immortal, blow them by, as dust [is blown by."] 
Rule &5 applies to these last three examples. 

In the next place I will explain several cases of nouns and 
pronouns which have not yet come under our notice. Some- 
times a noun or pronoun may be in the nominative case when it 
has no verb to agree with it. 

OF THE NOMINATIVE CASE INDEPENDENT. 

Whenever a direct address is made, the person 
or thing spoken to, is in the nominative case inde« 
pendent; as, " James, I desire you to study." 



130 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX* 

You notice that, in this expression, I address myself to James ; 
that is, I speak to him ; and you observe, too, that there is no verb*, 
either expressed or implied, to which James can be the nomina- 
tive ; therefore you know that James is in the nom. case inde- 
pendent, according to Rule 5. Recollect, that whenever a noun 
is of the second person, it is in the nom. case independent ; that 
is, independent of any verb ; as, Selma, thy halls are silent ; 
Love and meekness, my lord, become a churchman, better than 
ambition ; O Jerusalem, Jerusalem, how often would I have 
gathered thy children together, even as a hen gathereth her 

chickens under her wings, but ye would not ! For a farther 

illustration of this case, see Note 2, under the 5th Rule of 
Syntax. 

Note. When a pronoun of the second person is in apposition with a noun 
independent, it is in the same case ; as, " Thou traitor, I detest thee." 

OF THE NOMINATIVE CASE ABSOLUTE. 

A noun or pronoun placed before a participle, 
without any verb to agree with it, is in the nom- 
inative case absolute ; as, "The sun being risen, 
we pursued our journey." 

Sun is here placed before the participle " being risen," and 
has no verb to agree with it ; therefore it is in the nominative 
case absolute, according to Rule 6. 

Note 1. A noun or pronoun in the nominative case independent, is al- 
ways of the second person j but, in the case absolute, it is generally of the 
third person. 

2. The case absolute is always nominative ; the following sentence is 
therefore incorrect : " Whose top shall tremble, him descending," &c. ; it 
should be, he descending. 

OF NOUNS IN APPOSITION. 
Two or more nouns or pronouns signifying the 
same person or thing, are put, by apposition, in 
the same case ; as, " Cicero, the great orator, 
philosopher, and statesman of Rome, was mur- 
dered by Anthony." 

Apposition, in a grammatical sense, means something added, 
or names added, in order more fully to define or illustrate the 
sense of the first name mentioned. 

You perceive that Cicero, in the preceding example, is mere- 
ly the proper name of a man ; but when I give him the three 
additional appellations, and call him a great orator, philosopher, 
and statesman, you understand what kind of a man he was ; that 



CASES OF NOUNS. PARSING. 131 

is, by giving him these three additional names, his character and 
abilities as a man are more fully made known. And, surely, 
you cannot be at a loss to know that these four nouns must be 
in the same case, for they are all names given to the same 
person ; therefore, if Cicero was murdered, the orator was mur- 
dered, and the philosopher was murdered, and the statesman was 
murdered, because they all mean one and the same person. '4 
I Nouns and pronouns in the objective case, are frequently^ in 
apposition ; as, He struck Charles the student. Now it is obvi- 
ous, that, when he struck Charles, he struck the student, because 
Charles was the student, and the student was Charles ; therefore 
the noun student is in the objective case, governed by " struck," 
and put by apposition with Charles, according to Rule 7. 

Please to examine this lecture very attentively. You will 
then be prepared to parse the following examples correctly and 
systematically. 

PARSING. 

"Weep on the rocks of roaring winds, O maid of Inistore." 

Maid is a noun, the name of a person — com. the name of a 
sort — fern, gender, it denotes a female — second pers. spoken 
to — sing. num. it implies but one — and in the nominative cas" 
independent, because it is addressed, and has no verb to agree 
with it, according to 

Rule 5. When an address is made, the noun or pronoun ad- 
dressed, is put in the nominative case independent. 

" The general being ransomed, the barbarians permitted him 
to depart." 

General is a noun, the name, &c. (parse it in full :) — and in 
the nominative case absolute, because it is placed before the 
participle " being ransomed," and it has no verb to agree with 
it, agreeably to 

Rule 6. A noun or pronoun placed before a participle, and 
being independent of the rest of the sentence, is in the nominative 
case absolute. 

" Tlwu man of God, flee to the land of Judah." 

Thou is a pronoun, a word used instead of a noun — personal, 
it personates " man" — second pers. spoken to — mas. gender, 
sing. num. because the noun " man" is for which it stands ; 
Rule 13. (Repeat the Rule.) — Thou is in the nominative case 
independent, and put by apposition with man, because it signi- 
fies the same thing, according to 

Rule 7. Two or more nouns, or nouns and pronouns, signi' 
fying the same thing, are put, by apposition, in the same case. 



132 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 

Man is in the nominative case independent, according to 
Rule 5. Flee agrees with thou understood. 

" Lo ! JYewton, priest of Nature, shines afar, 

" Scans the wide world, and numbers every star." 

JYewton is a noun, (parse it in full,) and in the nominative 
case to "shines :" Rule 3. 

Priest is a noun, (parse it in full,) and in the nom. case, it is 
the* actor and subject of the verb " shines," and put by apposition 
with " Newton," because it signifies the same thing, agreeably 
to Rule 7. (Repeat the Rule.) 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

Turn from your evil ways, O house of Israel ! Ye fields of 
light, celestial plains, ye scenes divinely fair ! proclaim your 
Maker's wondrous power. O king ! live for ever. The mur- 
mur of thy streams, O Lora, brings back the memory of the 
past. The sound of thy woods, Garmallar, is lovely in my ear. 
Dost thou not behold, Malvina, a rock with its head of heath ? 
Three aged pines bend from its face ; green is the plain at its 
feet ; there the flower of the mountain grows, and shakes its 
white head in the breeze. 

The General being slain, the army was routed. Commerce 
naving thus got into the legislative body, privilege must be done 
away. Jesus had conveyed himself away, a multitude being 
in that place. I being in great haste, he consented. The rain 
having ceased, the dark clouds rolled away. The Son of God, 
while clothed in flesh, was subject to all the frailties and incon 
veniences of human nature, sin excepted ; (that is, sin being ex 
cepted.) 

In the days of Joram, king of Israel, flourished the prophet 
Elisha. Paul the apostle suffered martyrdom. Come, peace 
of mind, delightful guest ! and dwell with me. Friends, Ro- 
mans, countrymen, lend me your ears. 

Soul of the just, companion of the dead ! 
Where is thy home, and whither art thou fled ? 

Till Hymen brought his love-delighted hour, 
There dwelt no joy in Eden's rosy bower : — 
The world was sad, the garden was a wild, 
And man the hermit sighed, till woman smiled. 

Not - ?. Those verbs in italicks, in the preceding examples, are all in the 
imperative mood, and second person, agreeing with thou, ye, or you, under- 
stood. House of Israel is a noun of multitude. Was routed and must be done 
are passive verbs. Art fled is a neuter verb in a passive form. Clothed is a 
perfect participle. Till is an adverbial conjunction. 



MOODS OF VERBS. 133 

When you shall have analyzed, systematically, every word of 
the foregoing exercises, you may answer the following 

QUESTIONS NOT ANSWERED IN PARSING. 

Repeat the list of interjections. — Repeat some interjective 
phrases. — Repeat the order of parsing an interjection. — In or- 
der to find the verb to which a noun is nom. what question do 
you put ? — Give examples. — Is the nominative case ever placed 
after the verb? — When ? — Give examples. — Does the objective 
case ever come before the verb 1 — Give examples. — Is a noun 
ever nom. to a verb understood 1 — Give examples. — When is a 
noun or pronoun in the nom. case independent 1^— Give exam- 
ples. — Are nouns of the second person always in the nom. case 
independent 1 — When a pronoun is put by apposition with a 
noun independent, in what case is it ? — When is a noun or pro- 
noun in the nom. case absolute ? — Give examples. — When are 
nouns or nouns and pronouns put, by apposijtion, in the same 
case 1 — Give examples.— In parsing a noun or pronoun in the 
nom. case independent, what Rule should be applied ? — In pars- 
ing the nom. case absolute, what Rule ? — What Rule in parsing 
nouns or pronouns in apposition ? — Do real interjections belong 
to written language 1 (Phil. Notes.) — From what are the fol- 
lowing words derived, pish,fy, lo, halt, farewell, welcome, adieu? 



LECTURE XI. 



OF THE MOODS AND TENSES OF VERBS. 

You have now acquired a general, and, I may say, an exten- 
sive, knowledge of nine parts of speech ; but you know but 
little, as yet, respecting the most important one of all ; I mean 
the Verb. I will, therefore, commence this lecture by giving 
you an explanation of the Moods and Tenses of verbs. Have 
the goodness, however, first to turn back and read over Lec- 
ture II. and reflect well upon what is there said respecting the 
verb ; after which I will conduct you so smoothly through the 
moods and tenses, and the conjugation of verbs, that, instead of 
finding yourself involved in obscurities and deep intricacies, vou 
will scarcely find an obstruction to impede your progress. 

12 



134 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 

I. OF THE MOODS. 

The Mood or Mode of a verb means the man- 
ner in which its action, passion, or being, is re 
presented. 

When I wish to assert a thing, positively, I use the declara- 
tive or indicative mode ; as, The man walks ; but sometimes 
the action or occurrence of which I wish to speak, is doubtful, 
and then I must not declare it positively, but I must adopt 
another mode of expression ; thus, If the man walk, he will re- 
fresh himself with the bland breezes. This second mode or 
manner of representing the action, is called the subjunctive or 
conditional mode. 

Again, we sometimes employ a verb when we do not wish to 
declare a thing, nor to represent the action in a doubtful or con- 
ditional manner ; but we wish to command some one to act. 
We then use the imperative or commanding mode, and say, 
Walk, sir. And when we do not wish to command a man to 
act, we sometimes allude to his power or ability to act. This 
fourth mode of representing action, is called the potential mode ; 
as, He can walk ; He could walk. The fifth and last mode, 
called the infinitive or unlimited mode, we employ in expressing 
action in an unlimited manner ; that is, without confining it, in 
respect to number and person, to any particular agent; as, To 
ivalk, to ride. Thus you perceive, that the mood, mode, 01 
manner of representing the action, passion, or being of a verb, 
must vary according to the different intentions of the mind. 

Were we to assign a particular name to every change in the 
mode or manner of representing action or being, the number of 
moods in our language would amount to many hundreds. But 
this principle of division and arrangement, if followed out in de- 
tail, would lead to great perplexity, without producing any bene- 
ficial result. The division of Mr. Harris, in his Hermes, is 
much more curious than instructive. He has fourteen moods ; 
his interrogative, optative, hortative, promissive, precautive, re- 
quisitive, enunciative, &c. But as far as philosophical accuracy 
and the convenience and advantage of the learner are concern- 
ed, it is believed that no arrangement is preferable to the fol- 
lowing. I am not unaware that plausible objections may be 
raised against it ; but what arrangement cannot be objected to 1 

There are five moods of verbs, the Indicative, 
the Subjunctive, the Imperative, the Potential, 
and the Infinitive, 



MOODS OF VERB$. 135 

The Indicative Mood simply indicates or de- 
clares a thing ; *as " He writes :" or it asks a 
question ; as, " Does he write ? Who wrote that ?" 

The term indicative, comes from the Latin indico, to declare. 
Hence, the legitimate province of the indicative mood, is to de- 
clare things, whether positively or negatively ; thus, positively, 
He came with me ; negatively, He came not with me. But in 
order to avoid a multiplication of moods, we extend its meaning, 
and use the indicative mood in asking a question ; as, Who came 
with you ? 

The subjunctive mood being more analogous to the indica- 
tive in conjugation, than any other, it ought to be presented 
next in order. This mood, however, differs materially from the 
indicative in sense ; therefore you ought to make yourself well 
acquainted with the nature of the indicative, before you com- 
mence with the subjunctive. 

The Subjunctive Mood expresses action, 
passion, or being, in a doubtful or conditional 
manner : of, 

When a verb is preceded by a word that ex- 
presses a condition, doubt, motive, wish, or sup- 
position, it is in the Subjunctive Mood ; as, "If 
he study, he will improve ; I will respect him, 
though he chide me ; He will not be pardoned, un- 
less he repent ; Had he been there, he would have 
conquered f (that is, if he had been there.) 

The conjunctions if, though, unless, in the preceding exam- 
ples, express condition, doubt, &c. ; therefore the verbs study, 
chide, repent, and had been, are in the subjunctive mood. 

Note 1. A verb in this mood is generally attended by another verb in 
some other mood. You observe, that each of the first three of the preceding 
examples, contains a verb in the indicative mood, and the fourth, a verb in 
the potential. 

2. Whenever the conjunctions if, though, unless, except, whether, lest, or 
any others, denote contingency or doubt, the verbs that follow them are in 
the subjunctive mood ; as, "If he ride out every day, his health will probably 
improve ;" that is, if he shall or should ride out hereafter. But when these 
conjunctions do not imply doubt, &c. the verbs that follow them are in the 
indicative, or some other mood ; as, " Though he rides out daily, his health jh 
no better." The conjunctive and indicative forms of this mood, are explained 
m the conjugation of the verb to love. See page 145. 

The Imperative Mood is used for command- 
ing, exhorting, entreating, or permitting ; as, 



136 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 



" Depart thou ; Remember my admonitions ; Tar 
ry awhile longer ; Go in peace." 

The verb depart expresses a command ; remember exhorts ; 
tarry expresses entreaty ; and go, permission ; therefore they 
are all in the imperative mood. 

The imperative, from impero, to command, is literally that 
mode of the verb used in commanding ; but its technical mean- 
ing in grammar is extended to the use of the verb in exhorting, 
entreating, and permitting. 

A verb in the imperative mood, is always of the second per- 
son, though never varied in its terminations, agreeing with thou, 
ye, or you, either expressed or implied. You may know a verb in 
this mood by the sense ; recollect, however, that the nominative 
is always second person, and frequently understood ; as, George, 
give me my hat ; that is, give thou, or give you. When the 
nominative is expressed, it is generally placed after the verb ; as, 
Go thou ; Depart ye ; or between the auxiliary and the verb ; 
as, Do thou go ; Do ye depart. (Do is the auxiliary.) 

The Potential Mood implies possibility, 
liberty, or necessity, power, will, or obligation: 
as, " It may rain ; He may go or stay ; We must 
eat and drink; I can ride; He would ivalk ; They 
should learn" 

In the first of these examples, the auxiliary may implies pos- 
sibility ; in the second it implies liberty ; that is, he is at liberty 
to go or to stay ; in the third, must denotes necessity ; can de- 
notes power or ability ; would implies will or inclination ; that 
as, he had a mind to walk ; and should implies obligation. Hence 



PHILOSOPHICAL. NOTES. 



The changes in the termination of words, in all languages, have been 
formed by the coalescence of words of appropriate meaning. This subject 
was approached on page 49. It is again taken up for the purpose of show- 
ing, that the moods and tenses, as well as the number and person, of Eng- 
lish verbs, do not solely depend on inflection. 

The coalescing syllables which form the number and person of the He- 
brew verb, are still considered pronouns ; and, by those who have investi- 
gated the subject, it is conceded, that the same plan has been adopted in 
the formation of the Latin and Greek verbs, as in the Hebrew. Some 
languages have carried this process to a very great extent. Ours is remark- 
able for the small number of its inflections. But they who reject the passive 
verb, and those moods and tenses which are formed by employing what are 
called " auxiliary verbs," because they are formed of two or more verbs, do not 
appear to reason soundly. It is inconsistent to admit, that walk-eM, and 
tvalk-ed, are tenses, because each is but one word, and to reject have walk- 



MOODS. 137 

you perceive, that the verbs, may rain, may go, must eat, must 
drink, can ride, would walk, and should learn, are in the poten- 
tial mood. 

Note 1. As a verb in tbe indicative mood is converted into the subjunc- 
tive when it is preceded by a conjunction expressing doubt, contingency, 
supposition, &c, so a verb in the potential mood, may, in like manner, be 
turned into the subjunctive ; as, "If I could deceive him, I should abhor it ; 
Though he shmdd increase in wealth, he would not be charitable." I could 
deceive, is in the potential ; If I could deceive, is in the subjunctive mood. 

2. The potential mood, as well as the indicative, is used in asking a ques- 
tion ; as, " May I go ? Could you understand him ? Must we die ?" 

The Infinitive Mood expresses action, pas- 
sion, or being, in a general and unlimited man- 
ner, having no nominative, consequently, neither 
person nor number ; as, " To speak, to ivalk" 

Infinitive means unconfined, or unlimited. This mood is 
called the infinitive, because its verb is not confined or limited to 
a nominative. A verb in any other mood is limited ; that is, 
it must agree in number and person with its nominative ; but a 
verb in this mood has no nominative, therefore, it never changes 
its termination, except to form the perfect tense. Now you un- 
derstand why all verbs are called finite or limited, excepting 
those in the infinitive mood. 

Note. To, the sign of the infinitive mood, is often understood before tha 
verb ; as, " Let me proceed ;" that is, Let me to proceed. See Rule 25. To 
•s not a preposition when joined to a verb in this mood ; thus, to ride, to 
rule ; but it should be parsed with the verb, and as a part of it. 

If you study this lecture attentively, you will perceive, that 
when I say, I write, the verb is in the indicative mood ; but when 
I say, if I write, or, unless I write, &c. the verb is in the sub- 
junctive mood ; write thou, or write ye or you, the imperative ; 
I may write, 1 must write, I could write, fyc. the potential ; and 

ed, and icill walk, as tenses, because each is composed of two words. Eth, 
as previously shown, is a contraction of doeth, or haveth, and ed, of dede, dodo, 
doed or did; and, therefore, xvalk-eth; i. e. walk-doe*A, or doeth-walk, and 
walk-erf; i. e. walk-did, or aoed or did- walk, are, when analyzed, as strictly 
compound, as will walk, shall walk, and have walked. The only difference 
in the formation of these tenses, is, that in the two former, the associated 
verbs have been contracted and made to coalesce with the main verb, but in 
the two latter, they still maintain their ground as separate words. 

If it be said that will walk is composed of two words, each of which con- 
veys a distinct idea, and, therefore, should be analyzed by itself, the same 
argument with all its force, may be applied to walk-eJ/i, walk-ed, walk-did 
or did walk. The result of all the investigations of this subject, appears to 
settle down into the hackneyed truism, that the passive verbs, and the moods 
and tenses, of some languages, are formed by inflections, or terminations 
either prefixed or postfixed, and of other languages, by the association of 
auxiliary verbs, which have not yet been contracted and made to coalesce 

12* 



1 33 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 



to write, the infinitive. Any other verb (except the defective) 
may be employed in the same manner. 

II. OF THE TENSES. 

Tense means time. 

Verbs have six tenses, the Present, the Imper- 
fect, the Perfect, the Pluperfect, and the First 
and Second Future tenses. 

The Present Tense represents an action or 
event as taking place at the time in which it is 
mentioned ; as " I smile; I see; I am seen? 

Note 1. The present tense is also used in speaking of actions continued, 
with occasional intermissions, to the present time ; as, " He rides out every 
morning." 

2. This tense is sometimes applied to represent the actions of persons 
long since dead ; as, " Seneca reasons and moralizes well ; An honest man 
is the noblest work of God." 

3. When the present tense is preceded by the words, to/ten, before, after, 
as soon as, &c. it is sometimes used to point out the relative time of a future 
action ; as, " When he arrives we shall hear the news." 

The Imperfect Tense denotes a past action 
or event, however distant ; or, 

The Imperfect Tense represents an action or 
event as past and finished, but without defining 
the precise time of its completion ; as, " I loved 
her for her modesty and virtue ; They were trav- 
elling post when he met them." 

In these examples, the verbs loved and met express past and 
finished actions, and therefore constitute a perfect tense as 
strictly as any form of the verb in our language ; but, as they do 

as terminations. The auxiliary, when contracted into a terminating syllable, 
retains its distinct and intrinsick meaning, as much as when associated with 
a verb by juxtaposition : consequently, an " auxiliary verb" may form a part 
of a mood or tense, or passive verb, with as much propriety as a terminating 
syllable. They who contend for the ancient custom of keeping the auxilia- 
ries distinct, and parsing them as primary verbs, are, by the same principle, 
bound to extend their dissecting-knife to every compound word in the language. 

Having thus attempted briefly to prove he philosophical accuracy of the 
theory which recognises the tenses, moods, and passive verbs, formed by the 
aid of auxiliaries, I shall now offer one argument to shov/ that this theory, 
and this only, will subserve the purposes of the practical grammarian. 

As it is not so much the province of philology to instruct in the exact 
meaning of single and separate words, as it is to teach the student to com- 
bine and employ them properly in framing sentences, and as those combina- 
tions which go by the name of compound tenses and passive verbs, are ne- 
cessary in writing and discourse, it follows, conclusively, that that theory 



TENSES. 139 



not define the precise time of the completion of these actions, 
their tense may properly be denominated an indefinite past. By 
defining the present participle in conjunction with the verb, we 
have an imperfect tense in the expression, were travelling. This 
course, however, would not be in accordance with the 01 Jinary 
method of treating the participle. Hence it follows, that the terms 
imperfect and perfect, as applied to this and the next succeeding 
tense, are not altogether significant of their true character ; but 
if you learn to apply these tenses correctly, the propriety or im- 
propriety of their names is not a consideration of very sreat mo- 

TYl^nf J & 



ment. 



The Perfect Tense denotes past time, and 
also conveys an allusion to the present ; as, "I 
have finished my letter." 

The verb have finished, in this example, signifies that the ac- 
tion, though past, was perfectly finished at a point of time imme- 
diately preceding, or in the course of a period which comes to 
the present. Under thin view of the subject, the term perfect 
may be properly applied to this tense, for it specifies, not only 
the completion of the action, but, also, alludes to the particular 
period of its accomplishment. 

The Pluperfect Tense represents a past 
action or event that transpired before some other 
past time specified ; as, « I had finished my letter 
before my brother arrived." 

You observe that the verb had finished, in this example, repre- 
sents one past ! action, and the arrival of my brother, another past 
action ; therefore had finished is in the plup erfect tense, because 

which does not explain these verbs in their combined state, cannot teach the 
student the correct use and application of the verbs of our language By such 
an arrangement he cannot learn when it is proper to use the phrases 7 shall 

aS th W t t>f ° ry i S mg - t0 d ° With the combini "g of "verbs iff be 

alleged that the speaker or writer's own good sense mult guide him in com 
bming these verbs, and, therefore, that the directions of the fframmanan 
are unnecessary, ,t must be recollected, that such an argument woulTbear 
egually, against every principle of grammar whatever. In sWt the theorv 
pf'thecompound tenses, and of the pas S iveverb,appearstobe^ 
tn ttf Ttl ° ° Ur lar W e > ^d so practically important to the sS 
^e^^r^ Paral ° glStick ^^ and the P^-phicd 

xvif>! 1 l the v m0St , plaU " ib [ e ob J, ection t0 th e old theory is, that it is encumbered 
with much useless technicality and tedious prolixity, 'which are avoided I bv 
the simple process of exploding the passive verb, and reducing the number o^ 



14 q ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 

the action took place prior to the taking place of the other past 
action specified in the same sentence. 

The First Future Tense denotes a future 
action or event ; as, " I will finish ; I shall finish 

my letter." _ , Ai 

The Second Future Tense represents a i fu- 
ture action that will be fully accomplished, at or 
before the time of another future action or event ; 
as, "I shall have finished my letter when my 
brother arrives." 

This example clearly shows you the meaning and the proper 
use of the second future tense. The verb "shall have fimshed ' 
implies a future action that will be completely finished at or be 
fore the time of the other future event denoted by the phrase, 
" when my brother arrives.'" 

N „ TE . . What K-^raLItt 2W iSS l^raLSii 

You may now read what is said respecting the moods and 
tenses several times over, and then you may earn to conjugate 
tenses sevc proceed to the conjugation of verbs, 

Si pfeas'e to tmnrit tne following paragraph on the ^ 
you win] pieaa mo ods and tenses ; and, in 

3K£^^3E*-i« — - - - — to 

-*"* *" T F 8 SSrtSknuM VEKBS. _ ^ 

AiixiUiKY or Helping Verbs are those by 
thehelp of Avhich the English verbs are pnnci- 

■ — • ~ . „ f 4l , tpriops to two. It is certain, however, that if 

the moods to three, and ( Of the ' ense ^° ^ and future tenses, the name, 
we reject the names of the perfect, P'"^™" ' * n ° sive ver b in writing 

of the potential and ^^^^v^cXm^s which form 
and discourse we must still ^P 1 ?/ tn °^ ™ mode of employing such 
crhin^n? Is &2&S. o^nX/the old theory, which **, 
them af Ly the new, which gtves them »o ™»e n 

On philosophical principles, we "^.Pl™?*! . F bu , as illustrated on 
tenses , of the verb, by analyzmg each word ^P^ l J > ^ *, rfect ten ses, 
page 79, the combined words which ^^^^J^ word sepa- 
Lve an associated W^^X^ t ,/ es e tenses, appears to 

^^Z^^^^^TZ for their adop- 



SIGNS OF THE MOODS AND TENSES. 141 

pally conjugated. May, can, must, might, could, 
would, should, and shall, are always auxiliaries ; 
do, be, have, and will, are sometimes auxiliaries, 
and sometimes principal verbs. 

The use of the auxiliaries is shown in the following conjuga- 

SIGNS OF THE MOODS. 

The Indicative Mood is known by the sense, or 
by its having no sign, except in asking a ques- 
tion ; as, " Who loves you ?" 

The conjunctions if, though, unless, except, 
xohether, and lest, are generally signs of the Sub- 
junctive; as, " If I love ; unless Hove," &c. 

A verb is generally known to be in the Impera* 
tive Mood by its agreeing with thou, or ye or you, 
understood ; as, " Love virtue, and follow her 
steps ;" that is, love thou, or lore ye or you ; fol- 
low thou, &C. 

May, can, and must, might, could, would, and 
should, are signs of the Potential Mood ; as, H I 
may love ; I must love ; I should love," &c. 

To is the sign of the Infinitive; as, " To love, 
to smile, to hate, to walk." 

SIGNS OF THE TENSES. 

The first form of the verb is the sign of the 
present tense ; as, love, smile, hate, walk. 

presented. If it is not quite so convenient and useful as the old one, they 
need not hesitate to adopt it. It has the advantage of being new ; and, 
moreover, it sounds large,, and will make the commonalty stare. Let it be dis- 
tinctly understood, that you teach " philosophical grammar, founded on reason 
and common sense?* and you will pass for a very learned man, and make all 
the good housewives wonder at the rapid march of intellect, and the vast 
improvements of the age. 

MOOD. 

Verbs have three moods, the indicative, (embracing what is commonly in- 
cluded under the indicative, the subjunctive, and the potential,) the impera- 
tive, and the infinitive. — For definitions, refer to the body of the work. 

TENSE OR TIME. 

Verbs have only two tonses, the present and the past. 

A verb expressing action commenced and not completed, is in thepresen' 
tense ; as, " Religion soars : it has gained many victories : it will [to] carry 
»td votaries to the blissful regions." 






142 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 

Ed — the imperfect tense of regular verbs ; 
as, loved, smiled, hated, walked. 

Have — the perfect ; as, have loved. 

Had— the pluperfect ; as, had loved. 

Shall or will — the first future ; as, shall love, 
or will love ; shall smile, will smile. 

Shall or will have — the second future ; as, 
shall have loved, or will have loved. 

Note. There are some exceptions to these signs, which you will notice 
by referring to the conjugation in the potential mood. 

Now, I hope you will so far consult your own ease and ad- 
vantage, as to commit, perfectly, the signs of the moods and 
tenses before you proceed farther than to the subjunctive mood. 
If you do, the supposed Herculean task of learning to conjugate 
verbs, will be transformed into a few hours jf pleasant pastime. 

The Indicative Mood has six tenses. 
The Subjunctive has also six tenses. 
The Imperative has only one tense. 
The Potential has four tenses. 
The Infinitive has two tenses. 

CONJUGATION OF VERBS. 

The Conjugation of a verb is the regular 
combination and arrangement of its several num- 
bers, persons, moods, and tenses. 

The Conjugation of an active verb, is styled 
the active voice ; and that of a passive verb, the 
passive voice. 

When a verb expresses finished action, it is in the past tense ; as, " This 
page (the Bible) God hung out of heaven, and retired." 

A verb in the imperative and infinitive moods, is always in the present 
tense, high authorities to the contrary notwithstanding. The command must 
necessarily be given in time present, although its fulfilment must be future. — 
John, what are you doing ? Learning my task. Why do you learn it ? 
Because my preceptor commanded me to do so. When did he command 
you ? Yesterday. — Not noiv, of course. 

That it is inconsistent with the nature of things for a command to be 
given in future time, and that the fulfilment of the command, though future, 
has nothing to do with the tense or time of the command itself, are truths so 
[>lain as to put to the blush the gross absurdity of those who identify the 
time of the fulfilment with that of the command. 



CONJUGATION OP VERBS. 143 

Verbs are called Regular when they form their 
imperfect tense of the indicative mood, and their 
perfect participle, tty adding to the present tense 
ed, or d only when the verb ends me; as, 

Pres. Tense. Imp. Tense. Perf. Participle. 

I favour. I favoured. favoured. 

I love. I loved. loved. 

A Regular Verb is conjugated in the following manner 

To Love. — Indicative Mood. 
Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural 

1. Pers. I love, 1. We love, 

2. Pers. Thou lovest, 2. Ye or you love, 

3. Pers. He, she, or it, lov- ) 3. They love. 

eth or loves. J 

When we wish to express energy or positiveness, the auxiliary do should 
orecede the verb in the present tense : thus, 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I do love, 1. We do love, 

2. Thou dost love, 2. Ye or you do love, 

3. He doth or does love. 3. They do love. 

Imperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I loved, 1. We loved, 

2. Thou lovedst, 2. Ye or you loved, 

3. He loved. 3. They loved. 
Or by prefixing did to the present : thus, 

Singular, Plural. 

1. I did love, 1. We did love, 

2. Thou didst love, 2. Ye or you did love, 

3. He did love. 3. They did love. 

. - »- 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

You may read the book which I have printed. 

May, an irregular active verb, signifying " to have and to exercise might 
or strength," indie, mood, pres. tense, second pers. plur. agreeing with its 
nom. you. Read, an irregular verb active, infinitive mood, pres- tense, with 
the sign to understood, referring to you as its agent. Have, an active verb, 
signifying to possess, indie, present, and having for its object, book under- 
stood after " which." Printed, a perf. participle, referring to book understood. 

Johnson, and Blair, and Lowth, would have been laughed at, had tbey essay- 
ed to thrust any thing like our modernized philosophical grammar down the 
throats of their cotemporaries. 

Woxdd, an active verb, signifying " to exercise volition," in the past tense 
of the indicative. Have, a verb,' in the infinitive, to understood. Been, a per- 



A 



144 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 

Perfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I have loved, 1. We have loved, 

2. Thou hast loved, 2. Ye or you have loved, 

3. He hath or has loved. 3. They have loved. 

Pluperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I had loved, 1. We had loved, 

2. Thou hadst loved, 2. Ye or you had loved, 

3. He had loved. 3. They had loved. 

First Future Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall or will love, 1. We shall or will love, 

2. Thou shalt or wilt love, 2. Ye or you shall or will 

3. He shall or will love. . love, 

3. They shall or will love. 
Second Future Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall have loved, 1. We shall have loved, 

2. Thou wilt have loved, 2. Ye or you will have 

3. He will have loved. loved, 

3. They will have loved. 

Note. Tenses formed without auxiliaries, are called simple tenses ; as, I 
love ; I loved ; but those formed by the help of auxiliaries, are denominated 
compound tenses ; as, I have loved; I had loved, &c. 

This display of the verb shows you, in the clearest light, the 
application of the signs of the tenses, which signs ought to be 
perfectly committed to memory before you proceed any farther. 
By looking again at the conjugation, you will notice, that have, 
placed before the perfect participle of any verb, forms the per- 
fect tense ; had, the pluperfect ; shall or tvill, the first future, 
and so on. 

Now speak each of the verbs, love, hate, walk, smile, rule, and 
conquer, in the first person of each tense in this mood, with the 
pronoun J before it ; thus, indicative mood, pres. tense, first 
pers. sing. I love ; imperf. I loved ; perf. I have loved ; and so 
on, through all the tenses. If you learn thoroughly the conju- 

fect part, of to be, referring to Johnson, Blair, and Lowth. Laughed af ? perf. 
part, of to laugh at, referring to the same as been. Had, active verb, m the 
past tense of the indicative, agreeing with its nom. they. Essayed, perf. part. 
referring to they. 

Call this "philosophical parsing, on reasoning principles, according to the 
original laws of nature and of thought," and the pill will be swallowed, by 

dants and their dupes, with the greatest ease imaginable. 



CONJUGATION OF VERBS. 



145 



gation of the verb in the indicative mood, you will find no diffi- 
culty in conjugating it through those that follow, for in the con- 
jugation through all the moods, there is a great similarity. 
Subjunctive Mood. 
Present Tense, or elliptical future. — Conjunctive form. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I love, 1. If we love, 

2. If thou love, 2. If ye or you love, 

3. If he love. 3. If they love. 

Look again at the conjugation in the indicative present, and 
you will observe, that the form of the verb differs from this form 
in the subjunctive. The verb in the present tense of this mood, 
does not vary its termination on account of number or person. 
This is called the conjunctive form of the verb ; but sometimes 
lhe verb in the subjunctive mood, present tense, is conjugated in 
the same manner as it is in the indicative, with this exception, t/i 
though, unless, or some other conjunction, is prefixed ; as, 

Indicative form. 
Singular. Plural 

1. If I love, 1. If we love, 

2. If thou lovest, 2. If ye or you love, 

3. If he loves. 3. If they love. 

The following general rule will direct you when to use the 
conjunctive form of the verb, and when the indicative. When a 
verb in the subjunctive mood, present tense, has a future signi- 
fication, or a reference to future time, the conjunctive form 
should be used ; as, " If thou prosper, thou shouldst be thank- 
ful ;" " He will maintain his principles, though he /osehis estate;" 
that is, If thou shalt or shouldst prosper ; though he shall ot 
should lose, Sec. But when a verb in the subjunctive mood, 
present tense, has no reference to future time, the indicative 
form ought to be used ; as, " Unless he means what he says, 
he is doubly faithless." By this you perceive, that when a 
verb in the present tense of the subjunctive mood, has a future 
signification, an auxiliary is always understood before it, for 
which reason, in this construction, the termination of the princi- 
pal verb never varies; as, " He will not become eminent, 
unless he exert himself;" that is, unless he shall exert, or should^ 
exert himself. This tense of the subjunctive mood ought to be 
called the elliptical future. 

The imperfect, the perfect, the "pluperfect, and the first futore 
tenses of this mood, are conjugated, in every respect, like the 
same tenses of the indicative, with this exception ; in the sub- 

13 



146 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 

unctive mood, a conjunction implying doubt, &c. is prefixed to 
me verb. 

In the second future tense of this mood, the verb is conju- 
gated thus, 

Second Future Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I shall have loved, 1. If we shall have loved, 

2. If thou shalt have loved, 2. If you shall have loved, 

3. If he shall have loved. 3. If they shall have loved. 

Look at the same tense in the indicative mood, and you will 
readily perceive the distinction between the two conjugations. 

Imperative Mood. 

Singular. Plural. 

2. Love, or love thou, or do 2. Love, or love ye or you, 
thou love. or do ye or you love* 

NOTfe. We cannot command, exhort, &c. either in past or future time; 
therefore a verb in this mood is always in the present tense. 

Potential Mood. 

Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I may, can, or must love, 1. We may, can, or must love, 

2. Thou mayst, canst, or 2. Ye or you may, Can, or 

must love, must love, 

3. He may, can, or must 3. They may, can, or must 

love. love, 

imperfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I might, could, would, or 1. We might, could, would, 

should love, or should love, 

2. Thou mightstj couldst, 2. Ye or you might, could, 

wouldst, or shouldst would, or should love, 
love, 

3 He might, could, would, 3. They might, could, would, 

or should love. or should love. 

Perfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural 

1. I may, can, or must have 1. We may, can, or must have 

loved, loved, 

2. Thou mayst, canst, or 2. Ye or you may, can, or 

must have loved, must have loved, 

S. He may, can, or must 3. They may, can, or must 
have loved. have loved. 



CONJUGATION OF VERBS. 



147 



Pluperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural 

1. I might, could, would, or 1. We might, could, would, 

should have loved, or should have loved. 

2. Thou mightst, couldst, 2. Ye or you might, could, 

wouldst, or shouldst would, or should have 

have loved, loved, 

3. He might, could, would, 3. They might, could, would, 

or should have loved. or should have loved. 

By examining carefully the conjugation of the verb through 
;his mood, you will find it very easy ; thus, you will notice, that 
whenever any of the auxiliaries, may, can, or must, is placed 
before a verb, that verb is in the potential mood, present tense ; 
might, could, would, or should, renders it in the potential mood, 
imperfect tense ; may, can, or must have, the perfect tense ; and 
might, could, would, or should have, the pluperfect tense. 

Infinitive Mood. 
Pres. Tense. To* love. Perf. Tense. To have loved. 

PAFvTICIPLES. 

Present or imperfect, . Loving. 

Perfect or passive, Loved. 

Compound, Having loved. 

Note. The perfect participle of a regular verb, corresponds exactly with 
the imperfect tense ; yet the former may, at all times, be distinguished from 
the latter, by the following rule: In composition, the imperfect tense of a 
verb always has a nominative, either expressed or implied : the perfect par- 
ticiple never has. 

For your encouragement, allow me to inform you, that when 
you shall have learned to conjugate the verb to love, you will 
be able to conjugate all the regular verbs in the English lan- 
guage, for they are all conjugated precisely in the same man- 
ner. By pursuing the following direction, you can, in a very 
short time, learn to conjugate any verb. Conjugate the verb 
love through all the moods and tenses, in the first person sin- 
gular, with the pronoun / before it, and speak the Participles : 
thus, Indicative mood, pres. tense, first pers. sing. I love; 
imperf. tense, I loved; perf. tense, I have loved: and so on, 
through every mood and tense. Then conjugate it in the 
second pers. sing, with the pronoun thou before it, through all 
the moods and tenses ; thus, Indie, mood, pres. tense, second 
pers. sing, thou lovest ; imperf. tense, thou lovedst : and so on, 
through the whole. After that, conjugate it in the third perc. 
sing, with he before it ; and then in the first pers. plural, with we 
before it, in like manner, through all the moods and tenses 



14S 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 



Although this mode of procedure may, at fir^t, appear to be 
laborious, yet, as it is necessary, I trust you will not hesitate 
to adopt it. My confidence in your perseverance, induces me 
to recommend any course which I know will tend to facilitate 
your progress. 

I When you shall have complied with my requisition, you may 
conjugate the following verbs in the same manner ; which will 
enable you, hereafter, to tell the mood and tense of any verb 
without hesitation : walk, hate, smile, rule, conquer, reduce, relate, 
melt, shim, fail. 



IiECTURE XII. 



OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 

Irregular verbs are those that do not form 
their imperfect tense and perfect participle by 
the addition of d or ed to the present tense ; as, 

Pres. Tense. Imperf. Tense. Perf. or Pass. Part. 

I write I wrote written 

I begin I began begun 

I go I went gone 

The following is a list of the irregular verbs. Those marked with an R. 
are sometimes conjugated regularly. 

Imperf. Tense. 
abode 
was 
arose 
awoke, R, 
bare 



Pres. Tense. 
A-bide 
Am 
Arise 
Awake 

Bear, to bring forth 
Bear, to carry 
Beat 
Begin 
Bend 
Bereave 
Beseech 
Bid 
Bind 
Bite 
Bleed 
Blow 
Break 
Breed 
Bring 
Build 
Burst 
Buy 



bore 

beat 

began 

bent 

bereft, R. 

besought 

bade, bid 

bound 

bit 

bled 

blew 

broke 

bred 

brought 

built 

burst, R. 

bought 



Peif. or Pass. Part, 
abo&a 
been 
arisen 
awaked 
born 
borne 

beaten, beat 
begun 
bent 

bereft, R. 
besought 
bidden, bid 
hound 
bitten, bit 
bled 
blown 
broken 
bred 
brought 
built 

burst, R. 
bought 



IRREGULAR VERBS. 



149 



Pres. Tense. 


Imperf. Tense* 


Per/, or Pass. Part*. 


Cast 


cast 


cast 


Catch 


caught, R. 


caught, R. 


Chide 


chid 


chidden, chid 


Choose 


chose 


chosen 


Cleave, to adhere 


clave, R. 


cleaved 


Cleave, to split 


cleft or clove 


cleft, cloven 


Cling 


clung 


clung 


Clothe 


clothed 


clad, R. 


Come 


came 


come 


Cost 


cost 


cost 


Crow 


crew, R. 


crowed 


Creep 


crept 


crept 


Cut 


cut 


cut 


Dare, to venture 


durst 


dared 


Dare, to challenge 


Regular 




Deal 


dealt, R. 


dealt, R* 


Dig 


dug, R. 


dug, R. 


Do 


did 


done 


Draw 


drew 


drawn 


Drive 


drove 


driven 


Drink 


drank 


drunk, drank,* 


Dweil 


dwelt. R. 


dwelt, R. 


Eat 


eat, ate 


eaten 


Fall 


fell 


fallen 


Feed 


fed 


fed 


Feel 


felt 


felt 


Fight 


fought 


fought 


Find 


found 


found 


Flee 


fled 


fled 


Fling 


flung 


flung 


Fly 


flew 


flown 


Forget 


forgot 


forgotten 


Forsake 


forsook 


forsaken 


Freeze 


froze 


frozen 


Get 


got 


gott 


Gild 


gilt, R. 


gilt, R. 


Gird 


girt, R. 


girt, It- 


Give 


gave 


given 


Go 


went 


gone 


Grave 


graved 


graven, R. 


Grind 


ground 


ground 


Grow 


grew 


grown 


Have 


had 


had 


Hang 


hung, R. 


hung, R. 


Hear 


heard 


heard 


Hew 


hewed 


hewn, R. 


Hide 


hid 


hidden. h"d 


Hit 


hit 


hit 


Hold 


held 


held 


Hurt 


hurt 


hurt 


Keep 


kept 


kept 


Knit 


knit, R. 


knit, R. 


Know 


knew 


known 



* The men were drunk ; i. e. inehriated. The toasts were drank, 
f Gotten is nearly obsolete. Its compound forgotten, is still in good 
use. 

13* 



150 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 



Pres. Tense, 


Imperf. Tense. 


Lade 


laded 


Lay 


laid 


Lead 


led 


Leave 


left 


Lend 


lent 


Let 


let 


Lie, to lie down 


lay 


Load 


loaded 


Lose 


lost 


Make 


made 


Meet - 


met 


Mow 


mowed 


Pay 


paid 


Put 


put 


Read 


read 


Ren 


rent 


Rid 


rid 


Ride 


rode 


Ring 


rung, rang, 


Rise 


rose 


Rive 


rived 


Run 


ran 


Saw 


sawed 


Say 


said 


See 


saw 


Seek 


sought 


Sell 


sold 


Send 


sent 


Set 


set 


Shake 


shook 


Shape 


shaped 


Shave 


shaved 


Shear 


sheared 


Shed 


shed 


Shine 


shone, R. 


Show 


showed 


Shoe 


shod 


Shoot 


shot 


Shrink 


shrunk 


Shred 


shred 


Shut 


shut 


Sing 


sung, sang,f 


Sink 


sunk, sank,! 


Sit 


sat 


Slay 


slew 


Sleep 


slept 


Slide 


slid 


Sling 


slung 


Slink 


slunk 


Slit 


slit, R. 


Smite 


smote 


Sow 


sowed 


Speak 


spoke 



Per/, or Pass. Part. 

laden 

laid 

led 

left 

len 

let 

lain 

laden, R. 

lost 

made 

met 

mown, R. 

paid 

put 

read 

rent 

rid 

rode, ridden* 

rung 

risen 

riven 

run 

sawn, R. 

said 

seen 

sought 

sold 

sent 

set 

shaken 

shaped »hapen 

shaver R. 

shorn 

shed 

shone, Ri. 

shown 

shod 

shot 

shrunk 

shred 

shut 

sung 

sunk 

sat 

slain 

slept 

sliJden 

slung 

slunk 

slit, R 

smitten 

sown, R. 

spoken 



* Ridden is nearly obsolete. 

f Sang and sank should not be used in familiar style. 



IRREGULAR VERBS. 



151 



Per/, or Pass. Part, 

sped 

spent 

spilt, R. 

spun 

spit, spitten,* 

split 

spread 

sprung 

stood 

stolen 

stuck 

stung 

stunk 

stridden 

struck or stricken 

strung 

striven 

strown, strowed, 
or strewed 
swet, R, 
sworn 
swollen, R. 
swum 
swung 
taken 
taught 
torn 
told 

thought 
thriven 
thrown 
thrust 
trodden 
waxen, R* 
worn 
woven 
wet, R. 
wept 
won 
wound 

wrought, worked 
wrung 
written. 

In familiar writing and discourse, the following, and some other verbs, arc 
often improperly terminated by t instead of ed • as, "learnt, spelt, spilt, 
stopt, latcht." They should be, " learned, spelled, spilled, stopped, latched." 

You may now conjugate the following irregular verbs in a 
manner similar to the conjugation of regular verbs : arise, begin, 
bind, do, go, grow, run, lend, teach, ivrile. Thus, to arise — In- 
dicative mood, pres. tense, first person, sing. J arise ; imperf. 
tense, I arose ; perf. tense, I have arisen, and so on, through all 
the moods, and all the tenses of each mood ; and then speak 
the participles : thus, pres. arising, perf. arisen, comp. having 

* Spitten is nearly obsolete. 



Pres. Tense. 


Imperf. Tense. 


Speed 


sped 


Spend 


spent 


Spill 


spilt, R. 


Spin 


spun 


Spit 


spit, spat 


Split 


split 


Spread 


spread 


Spring 


sprung, sprang 


Stand 


stood 


Steal 


stole 


Stick 


stuck 


Sting 


stung 


Stink 


stunk 


Strid 


strode, strid 


Strike 


struck 


String 


strung 


Strive 


strove 


S trow- or strew 


strowed or stre 


Sweat 


swet, R. 


Swear 


swore 


Swell 


swelled 


Swim 


swum, swam 


Swing 


swung 


Take 


took 


Teach 


taught 


Tear 


tore 


Tell 


told 


Think 


thought 


Thrive 


throve, R. 


Throw 


threw 


Thrust 


thrust 


Tread 


trod 


Wax 


waxed 


Wear 


wore 


Weave 


wove 


Wet 


wet 


Weep 


wept 


Win 


won 


Wind 


wound 


Work 


wrought, work 


Wring 


wrung 


Write 


wrote 



,152 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 

arisen. In the next place, conjugate the same verb in the second 
person sing, through all the moods and tenses ; and then in the 
third person sing, and in the first pers. plural. After that, you 
may proceed in the same manner with the words begin, bind, &c. 

Wow read the XL and XII. lectures four or five times over, 
and learn the order of parsing a verb. You will then be pre- 
pared to parse the following verbs in full ; and I presume, all 
the other parts of speech. Whenever you parse, you must refer 
to the Compendium for definitions and rules, if you cannot re- 
peat them without. I will now parse a verb, and describe all its 
properties by applying the definitions and rules according to the 
systematick order. 

" We could not accomplish the business." 

Could accomplish is a verb, a word which signifies to do — ac- 
tive, it expresses action — transitive, the action passes over from 
the nom. " we" to the object " business" — regular, it will form 
its imperfect tense of the indie, mood and perf. part, in ed — po- 
tential mood, it implies possibility or power— imperfect tense, it 
denotes past time however distant — first pers. plural, because the 
nom. " we" is with which it agrees, agreeably to Rule. 4. A verb 
must agree, &c. Conjugated — Indie, mood, present tense, first 
pers. sing. I accomplish ; imperfect tense, I accomplished ; per- 
fect, I have accomplished ; pluperfect, I had accomplished ; and 
so on. — Speak it in the person of each tense through all the 
moods, and conjugate in the same manner every verb you parse. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

These exercises contain a complete variety of Moods and Tenses' 
I learn my lesson well. Charles, thou learnest thy lesson 
badly. John, do you write a good hand ? Those ladies wrote a 
beautiful letter, but they did not despatch it. Have you seen the 
gentleman to whom 1 gave the book ? He has gone. They 
had received the news before the messenger arrived. When 
will those persons return 1 My friend shall receive his reward. 
He will have visited me three times, if he come to-morrow. 

If Eliza study diligently, she will improve. If Charles studies 
he does not improve. Unless that man shall have accomplished 
his work by midsummer, he will receive no wages. Orlando, 
obey my precepts, unless you wish to injure yourself. Remem- 
ber what is told you. The physician may administer the medi- 
cine, but Providence only can bless it. I told him that he might 
go, but he would not. He might have gone last week, had he 
conducted himself properly; (that is, if he had conducted, 
&c.) Boys, prepare to recite your lessons. Young ladies, let 
me hear you repeat what you have learned. Study, diligently, 



AUXILIARY VERBS. 153 

whatever task may be allotted to you. To correct the spirit 
of discontent, let us consider how little we deserve. To die for 
one's country, is glorious. How can we become wise 1 To 
seek God is wisdom. What is true greatness ? Active benevo- 
lence. A good man is a great man. 

Note 1. Man, following great, and what, in the last two examples, are 
nom. after is : Rule 21. To seek God, and to die for one's country, are mem- 
bers of sentences, each put as the nom. case to is respectively : Rule 24. 
The verb *o correct is the infinitive mood absolute : Note under Rule 23. 
May be allotted is a passive verb, agreeing with which, the relative part of 
whatever. That, the first part of whatever, is an adj. pronoun, agreeing with 
task ; and task is governed by study. Hear, following let, and repeat, follow- 
ing hear, are in the infinitive mood without the sign to, according to Rule 
25. To recite is governed by prepare: Rule 23. Is told, is a passive verb, 
agreeing with ichich, the relative part of whatever ; and you, following, is go- 
verned by to understood : Note 1, under Rule 32. 

2. In parsing a pronoun, if the noun for which it stands is not expressed, 
Vou must say it represents some person or thing understood. 



LECTURE XIII. 

OF THE AUXILIARY, PASSIVE, AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 
I. AUXILIARY VERBS. 

Before you attend to tin following additional remarks on the 
Auxiliary Verbs, you will do well to read again what is said res- 
pecting them in lecture XI. page 140. The short account there 
given, and their application in conjugating verbs, have already 
made them quite familiar to you ; and you have undoubtedly 
observed, that, without their help, we cannot conjugate any verb 
in any of the tenses, except the present and imperfect of the 
indicative and subjunctive moods, and the present of the im- 
perative and infinitive. In the formation of all the other tenses, 
the} r are brought into requisition. 

Most of the auxiliary verbs are defective in conjugation ; that 
is, they are used only in some of the moods and tenses ; and 
when unconnected with principal verbs, they are conjugated ii 
the following manner : * 

MAY. 

Pros. ( Sing. I may, thou may°t, he may. 

Tense. \ Plur. We may, ye or you may, they may. 

Imperf. ( Sing. I might, thou mightst, he might. 

Tense. ( Plur. We might, ye or you might, they might. 



154 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 



Pres. 
Tense. 

Imperf. 
Tense. 



Pres. 
Tense. 

Imperf. 
Tense. 



Pres. 
Tense* 

Imperf. 
Tense. 



Pres. 
Tense. 

Imperf. 
Tense. 



Pres. 

Tense. 

Imperf. 
Tense. 



Pres. 
Tense. 

rnperf. 
Tense. 



CAN. 

( Sing, I can, thou canst, he can. 

( Plur. We can, ye or you can, they can. 

( Sing. I could, thou couldst, he could. 

( Plur. We could, ye or you could, they could. 

WILL. 

SSing. I will, thou wilt, he will. 
Plur. We will, ye or you will, they will. 
( Sing. I would, thou wouldst, he would. 
/ Plur. We would, ye or you would, they would. 

SHALL. 

C Sing. I shall, thou shalt, he shall. 

( Plur. We shall, ye or you shall, they shall. 

Sing. I should, thou shouldst, he should. 

Plur. We should, ye or you should, they should. 

TO DO. 

C Sing. I do, thou dost or doest, he doth or does. 
( Plur. We do, ye or you do, they do. 
( Sing. I did, thou didst, he did. 
( Plur. We did, ye or you did, they did. 
Participles. Pres. doing. Perf. done. 

TO BE. 

( Sing. I am, thou art, he is. 

( Plur. We are, ye or you are, they are. 

< Sing. I was, thou wast, he was. 
( Plur. We were, ye or you were, they were 
Participles. Pres. being. Perf. been. 

TO HAVE. 

SSing. I have, thou hast, he hath or has. 
Plur. We have, ye or you have, they have. 

( Sing. I had, thou hadst, he had. 
( Plur. We had, ye or j^ou had, they had. 
Participles. Pres. having. Perf. had. 



Do, be, have, and iviil, are sometimes used as principal verbs ; 
and when employed as such, do, be, and have, may be conjuga- 
ted, by the help of other auxiliaries, through all the moods and 
tenses. 

Do. The different tenses of do, in the several moods, ars 
thus formed : Indicative mood, pres. tense, first pers. sing. 1 
do ; imperfect tense, I did ; perf. I have done ; pluperfect, I 
had done ; first future, I shall or will do ; sec. tut. I shall have 
done. Subjunctive mood, pres. tense, If I do ; imperf. if I 
did ; and so on. Imperative mood, do thou. Potential, pres. 
I may, can, or must do, &c. Infinitive, present, to do ; perf. 
to have done. Participles, pres. doing; perf. done ; compound, 
having done. 



AUXILIARY VERBS. 155 

Have. Have is in great demand. No verb can be conju ! 
gated through all the moods and tenses without it. Have, when 
used as a principal verb, is doubled in some of the past tenses, 
and becomes an auxiliary to itself; thus, Indie, mood, pres. 
tense, first pers. sing. I have; imp. tense, I had; perf. I have 
had; pluperf. I had had; first fut. I shall or will have; sec. fut. 
I shall have had. Subjunctive, present, if I have; imperf. if I 
had; perf. if I have had; pluperf. if I had had; first fut. if I 
shall or will have; sec. fut. if I shall have had. Imper. mood, 
have thou. Potential, present, I may, can, or must have, 
imperf. I might, could, would, or should have; perf. I may, can, 
or must have had ; pluperf. I might, could, would, or should 
have had. Infinitive, present, to have; perf. to have had. 
Participles, pres. having; perf. had; compound, having had. 

Be. In the next place I will present to you the conjugation 
of the irregular, neuter verb, Be, which is an auxiliary when- 
ever it is placed before the perfect participle of another verb, 
but in every other situation, it is a principal verb. 
•- To Be. — Indicative Mood. 

Pres. {Sing. I am, thou art, he, she, or it is. ^ 

Tense. ( Plur. We are, ye or you are, they are. 

Imperf. < Sing. I was, thou wast, he was. 

Tense. \ Plur. We were, ye or you were, they were. 

Perf. 4 Sing. I have been, thou hast been, he hath or has been. 

Tense. ( Plur. We have been, ye or you have been, they have been. 

Plup. {Sing. I had been, thou hadst been, he had been. 

Tense. (Plur. We had been, ye or you had been, they had been. 

First < Sing. I shall or will be, thou shalt or wilt be, he shall or will be. 

Fut.T. ( Plur. We shall or will be, you shall or will be, they shall or will be. 

Second ( Sing. I shall hire been, thou wilt have been, he will have been. 

Fut. T. ( Plur. We shall have been,you will have been,they will have been. 

Subjunctive Mood. 

Pres. < Sing. If I be, if thou be, if he be. 

Tense. (Plur. If we be, if ye or you be, if they be. 

Imperf. {Sing. If I were, if thou wort, if he were. 

7'cnse. (Plur. If we were, if ye or you were, if they were. 

The neuter verb to be. and all passive verbs, have two forms 
in the imperfect tense of this mood, as well as in the present; 
therefore, the following rule may serve to direct you in the 
proper use of each form. When the sentence implies doubt, 
supposition, &,c. and the neuter verb be, or the passive verb, is 
used with a reference to present or future time, and is either 
followed or preceded by another verb in the imperfect of the 
potential mood, the conjunctive form of the imperfect tense must 
be employed ; as, u Tf he were here, we should rejoice together;" 



156 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 

« She might go, were she so disposed." But when there is no 
reference to present or future time, and the verb is neither fol 
lowed nor preceded by another in the potential imperfect, the 
indicative form of the imperfect tense must be used; as, " If he 
was ill, he did not make it known;" " Whether he was absent 
or present, is a matter of no consequence." The general rule 
for using the conjunctive form of the verb, is presented on page 
145. See, also, page 135. 

The perfect, pluperfect, and first future tenses of the subjunctive mood, 
are conjugated in a manner similar to the correspondent tenses of the in- 
dicative. The second future is conjugated thus : 

Second < Sing. If I shall have been, if thou shalt have been, if he shall, &c. 
Fut. T. (Plur. If we shall have been, if you shall have been, if they, &c. 

Imperative Mood. 

Pres. ( Sing. Be, or be thou, or do thou be. 

Tense. (Plur. Be, or be ye or you, or do ye or you be. 

potential Mood. 

"Sing. I may, can, or must be, thou mayst, canst, or must be, he 
Pres. 1 ma y, can, or must be. 

Tense. [ Plur. We may, can, or must be, ye or you may, can, or must 

be, they may, can, or must be. 
Imperf. (Siiig. I might, could, would,or should be, thou mightst, &c. 
Tense. (Plur. We might, could, would, or should be, you might, &c. 
Perf. ( Sing. I may, can, or must have been, thou mayst, canst, &c. 
Tense. ( Plur. We may, can, or must have been, you may, can, or must, &c. 
Pluper. (Sing. I might, could, would, or should have been, thou, &,c. 
Ten^e. (Plur. We might, could, would, or should have been, you, &c 

Infinitive Mood. 
Pres. Tense. To be. Perf. Tense. To have been. 

Participles, 
Pres. Being. Perf. Been. Compound, Having been. 
This verb to be, though very irregular in its conjugation, is 
by far the most important verb in our language, for it is more 
frequently used than any other; many rules of syntax depend 
on constructions associated with it, and, without its aid, no pas 
sive verb can be conjugated. You ought, therefore, to make 
yourself perfectly familiar with all its changes, before you pro- 
ceed any farther. 

If. PASSIVE VERBS. 

The cases of nouns are a fruitful theme for investigation and 
discussion. In the progress of these lectures, this subject has 
frequently engaged our attention; and, now, in introducing to 
your notice the passive verb, it will, perhaps, be found both in- 
teresting and profitable to present one more view of the nom 
i native case. 



PASSIVE VERBS. 157 

Every sentence, you recollect, must have one finite verb, or 
more than one, and one nominative, either expressed or implied, 
for, without them, no sentence can exist. 

The nominative is the actor or subject concerning which the 
verb makes an affirmation. There are three kinds of nomina- 
tives, active, passive, and neuter. 

The nominative to an active verb, is active, because it produ- 
ces an action, and the nominative to a passive verb, is passive, be- 
cause it receives or endures the action expressed by the verb ; for, 

A Passive Verb denotes action received or en- 
dured by the person or thing which is the nom- 
inative ; as, " The boy is beaten by his father." 

You perceive, that the nominative boy, in this example, is not 
represented as the actor, but as the object of the action express- 
ed by the verb is beaten ; that is, the boy receives or endures the 
action performed by his father ,• therefore boy is a passive nom- 
inative. And you observe, too, that the verb is beaten denotes 
the action received or endured by the nominative ; therefore is 
beaten is a passive verb. 

If I say, John kicked the horse, John is an active nominative, 
because he performed or produced the action ; but if I say, John 
was kicked by the horse, John is a passive nominative, because 
he received or endured the action. 

The nominative to a neuter verb, is neuter, because it does 
not produce an action nor receive one ; as, John sits in the chair. 
J ohn is here connected with the neuter verb sits, which express- 
es simply the state of being of its nominative, therefore John is 
a neuter nominative. 

I will now illustrate the active, passive, and neuter nomina- 
tives by a few examples. 

I. Of Active Nominatives ; as, " The boy beats the dog ; 
The lady sings ; The ball rolls ; The man walks." 

II. Of Passive Nominatives ; as, " The boy is beaten ; The 
lady is loved ; The ball is rolled ; The man was killed." 

III. Of Neuter Nominatives ; as, " The boy remains idle ; 
The lady is beautiful ; The ball lies on the ground ; The man 
lives in town." 

You may now proceed to the conjugation of passive verbs. 

Passive Verbs are called regular when they 
end in ed ; as, was loved ; was conquered. 

All Passive Verbs are formed by adding the 
perfect participle of an active-transitive verb, to 
the neuter verb to be. 

14 



158 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 



If 



?f you place a perfect participle of an active-transitive verb 
after this neuter verb be, in any mood or tense, you will have a 
passive verb in the same mood and tense that the verb be would 
be in if the participle were not used ; as, I am slighted ; I was 
slighted ; He will be slighted ; If I be slighted ; I may, can, or 
must be slighted, fyc. Hence you perceive, that when you shall 
have learned the conjugation of the verb be, you will be able to 
conjugate any passive verb in the English language. 

The regular passive verb to be loved, which is formed by add- 
ing the perfect participle loved to the neuter verb to i>e, is con- 
jugated in the following manner : 

To Be Loved. — Indicative Mood. 
Pres. ( Sing. I am loved, thou art loved, he is loved. 
Tense. \ Plur. We are loved, ye or you are loved, they are loved. 
Imperf. ( Sing. I was loved, thou wast loved, he was loved. 
Tense. ( Plur. We were loved, ye or you were loved, they were loved. 
Perfect ( Sing. I have been loved, thou hast been loved, he has been loveci. 
Tense. ( Plur. We have been loved, you have been loved, they have, &c. 

Plupcr. < Sing. I had been loved, thou hadst been loved, he had been, &c, 
Tense. ( Plur. We had been loved, you had been loved, they had been, &c. 

First J Sing. I shall or will be loved, thou shalt or wilt be loved, he, &c. 
Future. ( Plur. We shall or will be loved, you shall or will be loved, they, &o. 

Second ( Sing. I shall have been loved, thou wilt have been loved, he, &c. 
Future. ( Plur. We shall have been loved, you will have been loved, &c. 

Subjunctive Mood. 
Pres. J Sing. If I be loved, if thou be loved, u>he be loved. 
Tense. ( Plur. If we be loved, if ye or you be loved, if they be loved. 
Imperf. ( Sing. If I were loved, if thou wert loved, if he were loved. 
Tense. ( Plur. If we were loved, if you were loved, if they were loved. 
This mood has six tenses : — See conjugation of the verb to be. 
Imperative Mood. 
Pres. < Sing. Be thou loved, or do thou be loved. 
Tense. ( Plur. Be ye or you loved, or do ye be loved. 

Potential Mood. 
Pres. J Sing. I may, can, or must be loved, thou mayst, canst, or must, 6lc. 
Tense. ( Plur. We may, can, or must be loved, you may, can, or must, &c. 
Imperf. ( Sing. I might, could, would, or should be loved, thou mightst, &c 
Tense. } Plur. We might, could, would, or should be loved, ye or you, &c. 
Perfect < Sing. I may, can, or must have been loved, thou mayst, canst, &c. 
Tense. ( Plur. We may, can, or must have been loved, you may, can, &c. 

iSing. I might, could, would, or should have been loved, thou 
mightst, couldst, would st, or shouldst have been loved, &c. 
Plur. We might, could, would, or should have been loved, you 
might, could, would, or should have been loved, they, &c. 
Infinitive Mood. 
Pres. Tense. To be loved. Perf. Tense. To have been loved, 
Participles. 
Present, Being loved. Perfect or Passive, Loved. 
Compound, Having been loved. 



DEFECTIVE VERBS. 150 

Note. This conjugation of the passive verb to be toved, is called the 
passive voice of the regular active-transitive verb to love. 

Now conjugate the following passive verbs ; that is, speak 
them in the first pers. sing, and plur. of each tense, through all 
the moods, and speak the participles ; u to be loved, to be reject- 
ed? to be slighted, to be conquered, to be seen, to be beaten, to 
be sought, to be taken." 

Nq^te 1. When the perfect participle of an intransitive verb is joined to 
the neuter verb to be, the combination is not a passive verb, but a neuter verb 
in a passive form ; as, " He is gone ; The birds are flown; The boy is grown; 
My friend is arrived." The following- mode of construction, is, in general, to 
be preferred ; " He has gone ; The birds have flown j The boy has grown ; 
My friend has ai rived." ^ 

2. Active and neuter verbs may be conjugated by adding their present 
participle to the auxiliary verb to be, through all its variations ; as, instead 
of, I teach, thou teachest, he teaches, &c, we may say, I am teaching, thou 
* art teaching, he is teaching, &c. ; and, instead of, 1 taught, &c. ; I was teach- 
ing, &c. This mode of conjugation expresses the continuation, of an action 
or state of being ; and has, on some occasions, a peculiar propriety, and 
contributes to the harmony and precision of language. When tiie present 
participle of an active verb is joined with the neuter verb to be, the two 
words united, are, by some grammarians, denominated an active verb, either 
transitive or intransitive, as the case may be ; as, " I am writing a letter ; 
He is walking : ,? and when the present participle of a neuter verb is thus 
employed, they term the combination a neuter verb ; as, " I am sitting ; He 
is standing." Others, in constructions like these, parse each word separately. 
Either mode may be adopted. 

III. DEFECTIVE VERBS. 

Defective Verbs are those which are used 

only in some of the moods and tenses. 

The principal of them are these. 

Pres. Tense. Imperf. Tense. Perfect or Passive Participle 

, is wanting. 

May, might. 

Can, could. 

Will, would. 

Shall, should. 

Must, must. 

Ought, ought. 

■ quoth. — 

Note. Must and ought are not varied. Ought and quoth are never used 
as auxiliaries. Ought is always followed by a verb in the infinitive mood, 
which verb determines its tense. Ought is in the presenz tense when the in- 
finitive following it is in the present ; as, " He ought to do it ;" and ought is 
in the imperfect tense when followed by the perfect of the infinitive j as, " He 
ought to have done it." 

Before you proceed to the analysis of the following examples, 
you may read over the last three lectures carefully and atten- 
tively ; and as soon as you become acquainted with all that has 
been presented, you will understand nearly all the principles 
and regular constructions of our language. In parsing a verb, 



160 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 

or any other part of speech, be careful to pursue the systematicU 
order, and to conjugate every verb until you become familiar 
with all the moods and tenses. 

"He should have been punished before he committed that 

atrocious deed." 

Should have been punished is a verb, a word that signifies to 
do — passive, it denotes action received or endured by the nom. 
— it is formed by adding the perfect part, punished to the neuter 
verb to be — regular, the perf. part, ends in ed— potential mood, 
it implies obligation, &c. — pluperfect tense, it denotes a past 
act which was prior to the other past time specified by " com- 
mitted" — third pers.-sing. num. because the nom. "he" is with 
which it agrees : Rule 4. The verb must agree, &c. — Conju- 
gated, Indie, mood, pres. tense, he is punished ; imperf. tense, 
he was punished ; perf. tense, he has been punished ; and so 
on. Conjugate it through all the moods and tenses, and speak 
the participles. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

Columbus discovered America. America was discovered 
by Columbus. The preceptor is writing a letter. The letter 
is written by the preceptor. The work can be done. The 
house would have been built ere this, had he fulfilled his promise. 
If I be beaten by that man, he will be punished. Young man, 
if you wish to be respected, you must be more assiduous. Being 
ridiculed and despised, he left the institution. He is reading 
Homer. They are talking. He may be respected, if he become 
more ingenuous. My worthy friend ought to be honoured for 
ais benevolent deeds. This ought ye to have done. 

ADDITIONAL EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

All the most important principles of the science, together with 
many of the rules, have now been presented and illustrated. 
But before you proceed to analyze the following exercises, you 
^aaay turn over a few pages, and you will find all the rules pre- 
sented in a body. Please to examine them critically, and parse 
die examples under each rule and note. The examples, you will 
notice, are givon to illustrate the respective rules and notes 
under which they are placed ; hence, by paying particular at- 
tention to them, you will be enabled fully and clearly to com- 
prehend the meaning and application of all the rules and notes. 

As soon as you become familiarly acquainted with all the cfe- 
Jinitions, so that you can apply them with facility, you may omit 
them in parsing ; but you must always apply the rules of Syn- 
tax. When you parse without applying the definition you may 
proceed in the following manner : 



TERES.— PARSING. 



161 



" Mercy is the true badge of nobility. 77 

JVEercy is a noun common, of the neuter gender, third person, 
singular number, and in the nominative case to " is :" Rule 3. 
The nominative case governs the verb. 

Is is an irregular neuter verb, indicative mood, present tense, 
third person, singular number, agreeing with " mercy," accord- 
ing to Rule 4. The verb must agree, &c. 

The is a definite article, belonging to " badge" in the singu- 
lar number : Rule 2. The definite article the, &c. 

True is an adjective in the positive degree, and belongs to 
the noun " badge :" Rule 18. Adjectives belong, &c. 

Badge is a noun com. neuter gender, third person, singular 
number, and in the nominative case after " is," and put by ap- 
position with " mercy," according to Rule 21. The verb to be 
•may have the same case after it us before it. 

Of is a preposition, connecting " badge" and " nobility," and 
showing the relation between them. 

JYobility is a noun of multitude, mas. and fern, gender, third 
person, sing, and in the obj. case, and governed by "of:" Rule 
31. Prepositions govern the objective case. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

Learn to unlearn what you have learned amiss. 

What I forfeit for myself is a trifle ; that my indiscretions 
should reach my posterity, wounds me to the heart. 

Lady Jane Gray fell a sacrifice to the wild ambition of the 
duke of Northumberland. 

King Missipsi charged his sons to consider the senate and 
people of Rome as proprietors of the kingdom of Numidia. 

Hazael smote the children of Israel in all their coasts ; and 
from what is left on record of his actions, he plainly appears to 
have proved, what the prophet foresaw him to be, a man of vio- 
lence, cruelty, and blood. 

Heaven hides from brutes what men, from men what spirits 
know. 

He that formed the ear, can he not hear ? 

He that hath ears to hear, let him hear. 

Note 1. Leapi, in the first of the preceding examples, is a transitive verb. 
because the action passes over from the nom. you understood, to the rest oj 
the sentence for its object : Rule 24. In the next example, that my indiscre- 
tions should reach my posterity, is a part of a sentence put as the nominative to 
the verb wounds, according to the same Rule. 

2. The noun sacrifice, in the third example, is nom. after the active-in tran- 
sitive verb fell : Rule 22. The noun proprietors, in the next sentence, is 
in the objective case, and put by apposition with senate and people : Rule 7 
or governed by consider, understood, according to Rule 35. 

3. In the fifth example, what, following proved, is a compound relative, 

14* 



162 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 

Thing, the antecedent part, is in the nom. case after to be, understood, and 
put by apposition with he, according to Rule 21, and Note. Which the 
relative part, is in the obj. case after to be expressed, and put by apposition 
with him, according to the same Rule. Man is in the obj. case, put by ap- 
position with which : Rule 7. The latter part of the sentence may be lite- 
rally rendered thus : He plainly appears to have proved to be that base char- 
acter which the prophet foresaw him to be, viz. a man of violence, cruelty, 
nd blood. The antecedent part of the first what, in the next sentence, is 
governed by hides ; and which, the relative part, is governed by know under- 
stood. The antecedent part of the second what, is governed by hides under- 
stood, and the relative part is governed by know expressed. 

4. The first he, in the seventh exatnple, is, in the opinion of some, nom. 
to can hear understood ; but Mr. N. R. Smith, a distinguished and acute 
grammarian, suggests the propriety of rendering the sentence thus ; " He 
that formed the ear, formed it to hear; can he not hear?" The first he, in the 
last example, is redundant ; yet the construction is sometimes admissible, 
for the expression is more forcible than it would be to say, "Let him hear 
who hath ears to hear ;" and if we adopt the ingenious method of Mr. Smith, 
the sentence is grammatical, and may be rendered thus ; " He that hath 
ears, hath ears to hear ; let him hear." 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

Idioms, anomalies, and intricacies. 

1. " The wall is three feet high." 

2. " His son- is eight years old." 

3. " My knife is worth a shilling." 

4. " She is worth him and ail his connexions." 

5. " He has been there three times." 

6. " The hat cost ten dollars." 

7. " The load weighs a tun." 

8. " The spar measures ninety feet." 

Remarks. — Anomaly is derived from the Greek, a, without, and omalos, 
similar ; that is, ivithout similarity. Some give its derivation thus ; anomaly, 
from the Latin, ab, from, or out of, and norma, a rule, or law, means an out- 
law ; a mode of expression that departs from the rules, laws, or general 
usages of the language ; a construction in language peculiar to itself. Thus, 
it is a general rule of the language, that adjectives of one syllable are com- 
pared by adding r, or er, and st, or est, to the positive degree ; but good, bet- 
ter, best ; bad, worse, worst, are not compared according to the general rule. 
They are, therefore, anomalies. The plural number of nouns is generally 
formed by adding s to the singular : man, men; woman, women ; child, chil- 
dren; penny, pence, are anomalies. The use of news, means, alms, and 
amends, in the singular, constitutes anomalies. Anomalous constructions 
are correct according to custom ; but, as they are departures from general 
rules, by them they cannot be analyzed. 

An idiom, Latin idioma, a construction peculiar to a language, may be an 
anomaly, or it may not. An idiomatical expression which is not an anomaly, 
can be analyzed. . 

Feet and years, in the 1, and 2, examples, are not m the nominative after 
is, according to Rule 21, because they are not in apposition with the respec- 
tive nouns that precede the verb ; but the constructions are anomalous ; and, 
therefore, no rule can be applied to analyze +hem. The same ideas, how- 
ever, can be conveyed by a legitimate construction which can be analyzed ; 
thus, " The height of the wall is three feet;' 1 " The age of my son is eight 
t/e«rj." 



ANOMALIES. PARSING. 163 

An anomaly, when ascertained to be such, is easily disposed of; but some- 
times it is very difficult to decide whether a construction is anomalous or 
not. The 3d, 4th, and 5th examples, are generally considered anomalies ; 
but if we supply, as we are, perhaps, warranted in doing, the associated 
words which modern refinement has dropped, they will cease to be anoma- 
lies ; thus, "My knife is of the worth of a. shilling ;" " — of the worth ©/him," 
&c. " He has been there for three times;" as we say, " I was unwell for 
three days, after I arrived ;" or, " I was unwell three days." Thus it appears, 
that by tracing back, /or a few centuries, what the merely modern English 
scholar supposes to be an anomaly, an ellipsis will frequently be discovered, 
which, when supplied, destroys the anomaly. 

On extreme points, and peculiar and varying constructions in a living lan- 
guage, the most able philologists can never be agreed ; because many usages 
will always be unsettled and fluctuating, and will, consequently, be disposed 
of according to the caprice of the grammarian. By some, a sentence may be 
treated as an anomaly; by others who contend for, and supply, an ellipsis, 
the same sentence maybe analyzed according to the ellipsis supplied ; whilst 
others, who deny both the elliptical and anomalous character of the sentence, 
construct a rule by which to analyze it, which rule has for its foundation the 
principle contained in that sentence only. This last mode of procedure, inas- 
much as it requires us to make a rule for every peculiar construction in the 
language, appears to me to be the most exceptionable of the three. It ap- 
pears to be multiplying rules beyond the bounds of utility. 

The verbs,cosf, weighs, and measures, in the Gth, 7th, and 8th examples, 
may be considered as transitive. See remarks on resemble, have, own, &c, 
page 56. 

EXAMPLES. 

1 . " And God said, ' Lei there be light,' and there was 
light." " Let us make man." " Let us bow before the Lord." 
" Let high-born seraphs tune the lyre." 

2. " Beit enacted." " Be it remembered." " Blessed be he 
that blesseth thee ; and cursed be he that curseth thee." "My 
soul, turn from them : — turn we to survey," &c. 

3. " JWethinks I see the portals of eternity wide open to re- 
ceive him." " Methought I was incarcerated beneath the 
mighty deep." " I was there just thirty years ago." 

4. " Their laws and their manners, generally speaking, were 
extremely rude." "Considering their means, they have effected 
much." 

5. " Ah me ! nor hope nor life remains." 

" Me miserable ! which way shall I fly ?" 

6. " O happiness ! our being's end and aim ! 

Good, pleasure, ease, content ! whate'er thy name ; 
That something still which prompts th' eternal sigh, 
For which we bear to live, or dare to die." — 

The verb let, in the idiomatick examples under number 1, has no nomina- 
tive specified, and is left applicable to a nominative of the first, second, or 
third person, and of either number. Every action necessarily depends on an 
agent or moving cause ; and hence it follows, that the verb,in such construe 
tions, has a nominative understood ; but as that nominative is not particu 
larly pointed out, the constructions may be considered anomalous. 



164 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX, 

Instead of saying, "Let it [to] be enacted ;" or, "It is or shall be enacted •" 
" Let him [to] be blessed ;" or, " He shall be blessed ;" " Let us turn to sur- 
vey," &c. ; the verbs, be enacted, be blessed, turn, &c. according to an idiom of 
our language, or the poet's license, are used in the imperative, agreeing with 
a nominative of the first or third person. 

The phrases, methinks and methought, are anomalies, in which the objec- 
tive pronoun me, in the first person, is used in place of a nominative, and 
takes a verb after it in the third person. Him was anciently used in the 
same manner ; as, " him thute, him thought." There was a period when 
these constructions were not anomalies in our language. Formerly, what 
we call the objective cases of our pronouns, were employed in the same man- 
ner as our present nominatives are. Ago is a contraction of agone, the past 
part, of to go. Before this participle was contracted to an adverb, the noun 
years preceding it, was in the nominative case absolute ; but now the con- 
struction amounts to an anomaly. The expressions, " generally speaking," 
and J * considering their means," under number 4, are idiomatical and ano- 
malous, the subjects to the participles not being specified. 

According to the genius of the English language, transitive verbs and pre- 
positions require the objective case of a noun or pronoun after them ; and this 
requisition is all that is meant by government, when we say, that these parts 
of speech govern the objective case. See pages 52, 57, and 94. The same 
principle applies to the interjection. " Interjections require the objective case 
of a pronoun of the first person after them ; but the nmninative of a noun or 
pronoun of the second or third person ; as, " Ah me ! Oh thou ! O my country /" 
To say, then, that interjections require particular cases after them, is syno- 
nymous with saying, that they govern those cases ; and this office of the in- 
terjection is in perfect accordance with that which it performs in the Latin, 
and many other languages. In the examples under number 5, the first me 
is in the objective after " ah," and the second me, after ah understood ; thus, 
"Ah miserable me !" according to Note 2, under Rule 5. — Happiness, under 
number 6, is nom. independent ; Rule 5, or in the nom. after O, according 
to this Note. The principle contained in the note, proves that every noun 
of the second person is in the nominative case j for, as the pronoun of the 
second person, in such a situation, is always nominative, which is shown by 
its form, it logically follows that the noun, under such circumstances, al- 
though it has no form to show its case, must necessarily be in the same case 
as the pronoun. " Good, pleasure, ease, content, that," the antecedent part 
of " whatever," and which, the relative part, are nom. after art understood : 
Rule 21, and name is nom. to be understood. 

The second line may be rendered thus ; Whether thou art gocd, or 
whether thou art pleasure, fyc. or be thy name that [thing] which [ever 
thing] it may be : putting be in the imperative, agreeing with name in the 
third person. Something is nominative after art understood. 

EXAMPLES. 

1. "All were well but the stranger*." "I saw nobody but 
the stranger." " All had returned but he." " None but the 
brave deserve the fair." "The thing they can't but purpose, 
they postpone." " This life, at best, is but a dream." " It 
affords but a scanty measure of enjoyment." " If he but touch 
the hills, they will smoke." "Man is but a reed, floating on 
the current of time." 

2. " Notwithstanding his poverty, he is content." 

3. " Open your hand wide." " The apples boil soft." "The 



ANOMALIES. PARSING. 165 

purest clay is that which burns tvhite." " Drink deep, or tasto 
not the Pierian spring." 

4. " What though the swelling surge thou see V J &c. " What 
tfthe foot, ordain'd the dust to tread V 3 &c. 

Remarks. — According to the principle of analysis assumed by many of 
our most critical philologists, but is always a disjunctive conjunction ; and 
agreeably to the same authorities", to construe it, in any case, as a preposition, 
would lead to errour. See false Syntax under Rule 55. They maintain, that 
its legitimate and undeviating office is, to join on a member of a sentence 
which expresses opposition of meaning, and thereby forms an exception to, or 
takes from the universality of, the proposition contained in the preceding 
member of the sentence. That it sustains its true character as a conjunc- 
tion in all the examples under number 1, will be shown by the following 
resolution of them. — "All were well but the stranger [was not well."] "I 
saw nobody but [J saiv] the stranger." " None deserve the fair but the 
brave [deserve the fair."] " They postpone the thing which [they ought to do, 
and do not,] but which [thing] they cannot avoid purposing to do." " This 
life, at best, [is not a reality,] but it is a dream. It [affords not unbounded frui- 
tion] but it affords a scanty measure of enjoyment." " If he touch the hills, 
but exert no greater power upon them, they will smoke;" — "If he exert no 
greater power upon the hills, but [be-out this fact] if he touch them, they will 
smoke." " Man is not a stable being, but he is a reed, floating on the current 
of time." This method of analyzing sentences, however, if I mistake not, 
is too much on the plan of our pretended philosophical writers, who, in their 
rage for ancient constructions and combinations, often overlook the modern 
associated meaning and application of this word. It appears to me to be 
more consistent wiih the modern use of the word, to consider it an adverb in 
constructions like the following : " If he but (only, merely) touch the hills 
they will smoke." 

Except and near, in examples like the following, are generally construed 
as prepositions: "All went except him;" "She stands near them." But 
many contend, that when we employ but instead of except, in such construc- 
tions, a nominative should follow: " All went but he [did not go."] m this 
point and many others, custom is variable ; but the period will doubtless ar- 
rive, when but, worth, and like, will be considered prepositions, and, in con- 
structions like the foregoing, invariably be followed by an objective case. 
This will not be the case, however, until the practice of supplying an ellipsis 
after these words is entirely dropped. 

Poverty, under number 2, is governed by the preposition notwithstanding, 
Rule 31. The adjectives w ide, soft, ichite, and deep, under number 3, not 
only express the quality of nouns, but also qualify verbs : Note 4, under 
Rule 18. — What,m the phrases "what though" and "what if," is an interro- 
gative in the objective case, and governed by the verb matters understood, or 
by some other verb ; thus, " What matters it — what dost thou fear, though 
thou see the swelling surge ?" " What would you think, if the foot, which 
is ordained to tread the dust, aspired to be the head ?" 

In the following examples, the same word is used as several 
parts of speech. But hy exercising judgment sufficient to com- 
prehend the meaning, and by supplying what is understood, you 
will be able to analyze them correctly. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 
I like what you dislike. 
Every creature loves its like. 
Anger, envy, and like passions, are sinful. 



166 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 

Charity, like the sun, brightens every object around it. 

Thought flies swifter than light. 

He thought as a sage, though he felt as a man. 

Hail often proves destructive to vegetation. 

I was happy to hail him as my friend. 

Hail! beauteous stranger of the wood. 

The more I examine the work, the better I like it. 

Johnson is a better writer than Sterne. 

Calm was the day, and the scene delightful. 

We may expect a calm after a storm. 

To prevent passion is easier than to calm it. 

Damp air is unwholesome. 

Guilt often casts a damp over our sprightliest hours. 

Soft bodies damp the sound much more than hard ones. 

Much money has been expended. 

Of him to whom much is given, much will be required. 

It is much better to give than to receive. 

Still water runs deep. 

He laboured to still the tumult. 

Those two young profligates remain still in the wrong. 

They wrong themselves as well as their friends. 

I will now present to you a few examples in poetry. Pars- 
ing in poetry, as it brings into requisition a higher degree of 
mental exertion than parsing in prose, will be found a more de- 
lightful and profitable exercise. In this kind of analysis, in 
order to come at the meaning of the author, you will find it 
necessary to transpose his language, and supply what is under- 
stood ; and then you will have the literal meaning in prose. 
EXERCISES IN PARSING. 
Apostrophe to Hope. — Campbell. 

Eternaf Hope ! when yonder spheres sublime 
Pealed tMir first notes to sound the march of time, 
Thy joyous youth began : — but not to fade. — 
When all the sister planets have decayed ; 
When wrapt in flames the realms of ether glow, 
And Heaven's last thunder shakes the world below ; 
Thou, undismay'd, shalt o'er the ruins smile, 
And light thy torch at Nature's funeral pile ! 

Transposed. 

Eternal Hope ! thy joyous youth began when yonder sublime 
spheres pealed their first notes to sound the march of time : — 
but it began not to fade. — Thou, undismayed, shalt smile over 
the ruins, when all the sister planets shall have decayed ; and 
thou shalt light thy torch at Nature's funeral pile, when wrapt 



POETRY TRANSPOSED. PARSING. 167 

in flames, the realms of ether glow, and Heaven's last thunder 
shakes the world below. 

Address to Adversity. — Gray. 

Daughter of heaven, relentless power, 

Thou tamer of the human breast, 

Whose iron scourge, and tort'ring hour, 

The bad affright, afflict the best ! 

The gen'rous spark extinct revive ; 

Teach me to love and to forgive ; 

Exact my own defects to scan : 

What others are to feel ; and know myself a man. 

Transposed. 
Daughter of heaven, relentless power, thou tamer of the 
human breast, whose iron scourge and torturing hour affright 
the bad, and afflict the best ! Revive thou in me the generous, 
extinct spark ; and teach thou me to love others, and to forgive 
them ; and teach thou me to scan my own defects exactly, or 
critically : and teach thou me that which others are to feel ; 
and make thou me to know myself to be a man. 

Address to the Almighty. — Pope. 
What conscience dictates to be done, 

Or warns me not to do, 
This teach me more than hell to shun, 

That more than heav'n pursue. 

Transposed. 
O God, teach thou me to pursue that (the thing) which con- 
science dictates to be done, more ardently than I pursue heaven ; 
and teach thou me to shun this (the thing) which conscience 
warns me not to do, more cautiously than I would shun hell. 

Trials of Virtue. — Merrick. 
For see, ah ! see, while yet her ways 

With doubtful step I tread, 
A hostile world its terrours raise, 

Its snares delusive spread. 
O how shall I, with heart prepared, 

Those terrours learn to meet ? 
How, from the thousand snares to guard 

My unexperienced feet ? 

Transposed. 

For see thou, ah! see thou a hostile world to raise its ter- 
rours, and see thou a hostile world to spread its delusive snares, 
while I yet tread her (virtue's) ways with doubtful steps. 

O how shall I learn to meet those terrours with a prepared 



168 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 

heart? How shall I learn to guard my unexperienced feet from 
the thousand snares of the world ? 

The Morning in Summer. — Thompson, 
Short is the doubtful empire of the night ; 
And soon, observant of approaching day, 
The meek-eyed morn appears, mother of dews, 
At first, faint gleaming in the dappled east, 
Till far o'er ether spreads the wid'ning glow, 
And from before the lustre of her face 
White break the clouds away. 

Transposed. 
The doubtful empire of the night is short ; and the meek- 
eyed morn, {which is the) mother of dews, observant of ap- 
proaching day, soon appears, gleaming faintly, at first, in the 
dappled east, till the widening glow spreads far over ether, and 
the white clouds break away from before the lustre of her face* 
Nature Bountiful. — Akenside. 

Nature's care, to all her children just, 

With richest treasures, and an ample state, 
Endows at large whatever happy man 
Will deign to use them. 

Transposed. 
Nature's care, which is just to all her children, largely en 
dows, with richest treasures and an ample state, that happy mar. 
who will deign to use them. 



Note. What, in the second example, is a comp. rel. The antecedent 
part is gov. by teach understood ; and the relative part by to feel expressed. 
To shun and to pursue, in the third example, are in the infinitive mood, gov. 
by than, according to a Note under Rule 23. Faint and from, in the 5th 
example, are adverbs. An adverb, in poetry, is often written in the form of 
an adjective. Whatever, in the last sentence, is a compound pron. and is 
equivalent to that and who. That is an adj. pron. belonging to " man ;" who 
is nom. to " will deign ;" and ever is excluded from the sentence in sense. 
See page 113. Parse these examples as they are transposed, and you will 
find the analysis very easy. 

ADDITIONAL EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

Gold, not Genuine Wealth. 
Where, thy true treasure 1 Gold says, " not in me ;" 
And, " not in me," the Diamond. Gold is poor. 

Transposed. 
Where is thy true treasure 1 Gold says, " It is not in me;' 
and the Diamond says, "It is not in me." Gold is poor. 

Source of Friendship. — Dr. Young. 
Lorenzo, pride repress ; nor hope to find 
A friend, but what has found a friend in thee. 



POETRY TRANSPOSED. 169 

Transposed. 

Lorenzo, repress thou pride ; nor hope thou to find a friend, 
only in him who has already found a friend in thee. 
True Greatness. — Pope. 
Who noble ends by noble means obtains, 
Or, failing, smiles in exile or in chains, 
Like good Aurelius let him reign, or bleed 
Like Socrates, that man is great indeed. 

Transposed. 

That man is great indeed, let him to reign like unto good 
Aurelius, or let him to bleed like unto Socrates, who obtains 
noble ends by noble means ; or that man is great indeed, who, 
failing to obtain noble ends by noble means, smiles in exile or in 
chains. 

Invocation. — Pollok. 
Eternal Spirit ! God of truth ! to whom 
All things seem as they are, inspire my song ; 
My eye unscale : me what is substance teach ; 
And shadow what, while I of things to come, 
As past rehearsing, sing. Me thought and phrase 
Severely sifting out the whole idea, grant. 
Transposed. 
Eternal Spirit ! God of truth ! to whom all things seem to be 
as they really are, inspire thou my song ; and unscale thou my 
eyes : teach thou to me the thing which is substance ; and teach 
thou to me the thing which is shadow, while I sing of things which 
are to come, as one sings of things which are past rehearsing. 
Grant thou to me thought and phraseology which shall severely 
sift out the whole idea. 

The Voyage of Life. 

How few, favoured by ev'ry element, 
With swelling sails make good the promised port, 
With all their wishes freighted ! Yet ev'n these, 
Freighted with all their wishes, soon complain. 
Free from misfortune, not from nature free, 
They still are men ; and when is man secure ? 
As fatal time, as storm. The rush of years 
Beats down their strength ; their numberless escapes 
In ruin end : and, now, their proud success 
But plants new terrours on the victor's brow. 
What pain, to quit the world just made their own ! 
Their nests so deeply downed and built so high !— 
Too low they build, who build beneath the stars, 

15 



170 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 

Transposed. 

How few persons, favoured by every element, safely make 
the promised port with swelling sails, and with all their wishes 
freighted ! Yet even these few persons who do safely make the 
promised port with all their wishes freighted, soon complain. 
Though they are free from misfortunes, yet {though and yet, 
corresponding conjunctions, form only one connexion) they are 
not free from the course of nature, for they still are men ; and 
when is man secure ? Time is as fatal to him, as a storm is to 
the mariner. — The rush of years beats down their strength ; 
(that is, the strength of these few ;) and their numberless escapes 
end in ruin : and then their proud success only plants new 
terrours on the victor's brow. What pain it is to them to quit 
the world, just as they have made it to be their own world ; 
when their nests are built so high, and when they are downed so 
deeply ! — They who build beneath the stars, build too low for 
their own safety. 

Reflections on a Skull. — Lord Byron. 

Remove yon skull from out the scattered heaps. 

Is that a temple, where a God may dwell ? 
Why, ev'n the worm at last disdains her shattered cell ! 

Look on its broken arch, its ruined wall, 

Its chambers desolate, and portals foul : 

Yes, this was once ambition's airy hall, 

The dome of thought, the palace of the soul. 

Behold, through each lack-lustre, eyeless hole, 

The gay recess of wisdom and of wit, 

And passion's host, that never brooked control. 

Can all, saint, sage, or sophist ever writ, 
People this lonely tower, this tenement refit ? 

Transposed. 

Remove thou yonder skull out from the scattered heaps. Is 
that a temple, where a God may dwell 1 Why, even the worm 
at last disdains her shattered cell ! Look thou on its broken 
arch, and look thou on its ruined wall, and on its desolate 
chambers, and on its foul portals : — yes, this skull was once 
ambition's airy hall ; (it icas) the dome of thought, the palace, 
of the soul. Behold thou, through each lack-lustre, eyeless 
hole, the gay recess of wisdom and of wit, and passion's host, 
which never brooked control. Can all the works which saints, 
or sages, or sophists have ever written, repeople this lonely 
tower, or can they refit this tenement 1 

For your future exercises in parsing, you may select pieces 
from the English Reader, or any other grammatical work. 



DERIVATION. 171 

have already hinted, that parsing in poetry, as it brings moro 
immediately into requisition the reasoning faculties, than pars- 
ing in prose, will necessarily tend more rapidly to facilitate your 
progress : therefore it is advisable that your future exercises in 
this°way, be chiefly confined to the analysis of poetry. Previ- 
ous to your attempting to parse a piece of poetry, you ought 
always to transpose it, in a manner similar to the examples just 
presented ; and then it can be as easily analyzed as prose. 

Before you proceed to correct the following exercises in false 
syntax, you may turn back and read over the whole thirteen lec- 
tures, unless you have the subject-matter already stored in your 
mind. 



LECTURE XIV. 

OF DERIVATION. 

At the commencement of lecture II. I informed you that Ety 
mology treats, 3dly, of derivation. This branch of Etymology, 
important as it is, cannot be very extensively treated in an ele- 
mentary work on grammar. In the course of the preceding lec- 
tures, it has been frequently agitated ; and now I shall offer a 
few more remarks, which will doubtless be useful in illustrating 
some- of the various methods in which one word is derived from 
another. Before you proceed, however, please to turn back 
and read again what is advanced on this subject on page 27, 
and in the Philosophical Notes. 

1. Nouns are derived from verbs. 

2. Verbs are derived from nouns, adjectives, and sometimes 
from adverbs. 

3. Adjectives are derived from nouns. 

4. Nouns are derived from adjectives. 

5. Adverbs are derived fiom adjectives. 

1. Nouns are derived from verbs; as, from "to love," 
comes " lover;" from " to visit, visiter;" from "to survive, 
surviver," &c. 

In the following instances, and in many others, it is difficult to 
determine whether the verb was deduced from the noun, or the 
noun from the verb, viz. " Love, to love ; hate, to hate ; fear, 
to fear ; sleep, to sleep ; walk, to walk ; ride, to ride ; act, to 
act," &c. 



172 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 

2. Verbs are derived from nouns, adjectives, and sometimes from 
adverbs ; as, from the noun salt, comes " to salt ;" from the ad- 
jective ivarm, " to warm ;" and from the adverb forward, " to 
forward." Sometimes they are formed by lengthening the 
vowel, or softening the consonant ; as, from " grass, to graze ;" 
sometimes by adding en ; as, from " length, to lengthen ;" espe 
cially to adjectives; as, from "short, to shorten; bright, to 
brighten." 

3. Adjectives are derived from nouns in the following man- 
ner : adjectives denoting plenty are derived from nouns by add- 
ing!/; as, from " Health, healthy ; wealth, wealthy; might, 
mighty,' ' &c. 

Adjectives denoting the matter out of which anything is made, 
are derived from nouns by adding en ; as, from " Oak, oaken ; 
wood, wooden; wool, woollen," &c. 

Adjectives denoting abundance are derived from nouns by 
adding ful; as, from "Joy, joyful; sin, sinful; fruit, fruit- 
ful," &c. 

Adjectives denoting plenty, but with some kind of diminution, 
are derived from nouns by adding some ; as, from " Ligtn\ 
lightsome ; trouble, troublesome ; toil, toilsome," &c. 

Adjectives denoting want are derived from nouns by adding 
less; as, from "Worth, worthless;" from "care, careless; 
joy, joyless," &c. 

Adjectives denoting likeness are derived from nouns by add 
ing ly ; as, from " Man, manly ; earth, earthly ; court, court 
ly," &c. 

Some adjectives are derived from other adjectives, or from 
nouns by adding ish to them ; which termination when added 
to adjectives, imports diminution, or lessening the quality ; as, 
" White, whitish ;" i. e. somewhat white. When added to 
nouns, it signifies similitude or tendency to a character ; as, 
" Child, childish ; thief, thievish." 

Some adjectives are formed from nouns or verbs by adding 
the termination able ; and those adjectives signify capacity ; as, 
" Answer, answerable ; to change, changeable." 

4. Nouns are derived from adjectives, sometimes by adding 
the termination ness ; as, " White, whiteness ; swift, swiftness ;" 
sometimes by adding th or t, and making a small change in 
some of the letters ; as, "Long, length; high, height." 

5. Adverbs of quality are derived from adjectives, by adding 
ly, or changing le into ly ; and denote the same quality as the 
adjectives from which they are derived ; as, from " base," 
comes "basely ;" from " slow, slowly ;" from " able, ably." 

There are so many other ways of deriving words from one 



DERIVATION. 173 

another, that it would be extremely difficult, if not impossible, to 
enumerate them. The primitive words of every language are 
very few ; the derivatives form much the greater number. A 
few moie instances only can be given here. 

Some nouns are derived from other nouns, by adding the 
terminations hood or head, ship, ery, wick, rick, dom, ian, merit, 
and age. 

Nouns ending in hood or head, are such as signify character 
or qualities ; as, " Manhood, knighthood, falsehood," &c. 

Nouns ending in ship, are those that signify office, employ- 
ment, state, or condition ; as, " Lordship, stewardship, part- 
nership," &c. Some nouns in ship are derived from adjectives * 
as, " Hard, hardship," &c. 

Nouns which end in ery, signify action or habit ; as, " Slavery, 
foolery, prudery," &c. Some nouns of this sort come froiv 
adjectives; as, " Brave, bravery," &c. 

Nouns ending in wick, rick, and dom, denote dominion 
jurisdiction, or condition ; as, " Bailiwick, bishoprick, kingdom 
dukedom, freedom," &c. 

Nouns which end in ian, are those that signify profession ; 
as, " Physician, musician," &c. Those that end in merit and 
age, come generally from the French, and commonly signify 
the act or habit ; as, " Commandment," " usage." 

Some nouns ending in ard, are derived from verbs or adjec- 
tives, and denote character or habit ; as, " Drunk, drunkard ; 
dote, dotard." 

Some nouns have the form of diminutives ; but these are not 
many. They are formed by adding the terminations kin, ling, 
ing, ock, el, and the like ; as, " Lamb, lambkin ; goose, gos- 
ling; duck, duckling; hill, hillock ; cock, cockerel," &c. 
OF PREPOSITIONS USED AS PREFIXES. 

I shall conclude this lecture by presenting and explaining a list of Latin 
and Greek prepositions which are extensively used in English as prefixes. 
By carefully studying their signification, you will be better qualified to un- 
derstand the meaning of those words into the composition of which they en- 
ter, and of which they form a material part. 

I. LATIN PREFIXES. 

A, ab, abs — signify from or away; as, a-vert, to turn from j ab-ject, to 
throw away ; abs-tract, to draw away. 

Ad — to or at ; as, ad- here, to stick to ; ad-mire, to wonder at. 
. Ante — means before ; as, ante-cedent, going before. 

Circum — signifies round, about ; as, circum-navigate, to sail round. 

Con, com, co, col — together; as, con-join, to join together; corn-press, to 
press together; co-operate, to work together; col-lapse, to fall together. 

Contra — against ; as, contra-diet, to speak against. 

De — from, down ; as, de-duct, to take from ; descend, to go down. 

Di, dis — asunde* , away ; as, di-lacerale, to tear asunder ; dis-miss, to send 
a a- ay. ■ 

15* 



174 ETYMOLOGY. 

E, ef, ex— out ; as, e-ject, to throw out; ef-flux, to flow out ; ex elude to 
shut out. ' 

Extra — beyond ; as, extra-ordinary, beyond what is ordinary. 
In, im, il, ir — (in, Go thick, inna, a cave or cell ;) as, in-fuse, to pour in. 
These prefixes, when incorporated with adjectives or nouns, commonly re- 
verse their meaning ; as, in-sufficient, im-polite, il-legitimate, ir-reverence, ir- 
resolute. 

Inter — between ; as, inter-pose, to put between. 

Intro — within, into ; intro-vert, to turn within ; intro-duce, to lead into. 

Ob, op — denote opposition ; as, ob-ject, to bring against ; op-pugn, to op- 
pose. 

Per— through, by ; as, per-ambulate, to walk through ; per-haps, by haps. 

Post — after ; as, post-script, written after ; post-fix, placed after. 

Pros,, pre — before ; as, pre-fix, to fix before. 

Pro — for, forth, forward; as, pro-noun, for a noun; pro-tend, to stretch 
forth j pro-ject, to shoot forward. 

Prater — past, beyond ; as, preter-perfect, pastperfect ; preter-natural, be- 
yond the course of nature. 

Re— again or back ; as, re-peruse, to peruse again ; re-trace,to trace back. 

Retro — backwards ; as, retrospective, looking backwards. 

Se — aside, apart ; as, se-duce, to draw aside. 

Sub — under ; as, sub-scribe, to write under, or sub-sign. 

Subter — under ; as, subter-Jlucus, flowing under. 

Super — above or over ; as, super-scribe, to write above ; super-vise, to 
overlook. 

Trans — over, beyond, from one place to another; as, trans-port, to carry 
over ; trans-gress, to pass beyond. 

II. GREEK PREFIXES. 

A — signifies privation ; as, a-nonymous, without name. 

Jlmphi — both or two ; as, amphi-bious, partaking of both or two natures. 

JLnti — against ; as, anti-masonry, against masonry. 
. Via — through ; as, dia-meter, line passing through a circle. 

Hyper — over ; as, hyper-critical, over or too critical. 

Hypo — under, implying concealment or disguise ; as, hypo-crite, one dis- 
sembling his real character. 

Meta — denotes change or transmutation ; as, meta-morpkose, to change 
the shape. 

Para — contrary or against ; as, para-dox, a thing contrary to received 
opinion. 

Peri — round about ; as, peri-phrasis, circumlocution. 

Syn, syl, sym — together; as, syn-tax, a placing together; syn-od f a. meet- 
ing or coming together ; syl-lable, that portion of a word which is taken to- 
gether • sym-pathy, fellow-feeling, or feeling together. 



RECAPITULATION 

OF THE 

RULES OF SYNTAX, 

WITH ADDITIONAL EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX. 



The third part of Grammar is Syntax, which 
treats of the agreement and government of words, 
and of their proper arrangement in a sentence. 

Syntax consists of two parts, Concord and 
Government. 

Concord is the agreement which one word has 
with another, in gender, person, number, or case 

For the illustration of agreement and government, see pages 
52, and 53. 

For the definition of a sentence, and the transposition of its 
words and members, see pages 119, 124, 128, and 167. 

The principal parts of a simple sentence are 
the nominative or subject, the verb or attribute, 
or word that makes the affirmation, and the ob- 
ject, or thing affected by the action of the verb ; 
as, " A wise man governs his passions" In this 
sentence, man is the subject; governs, the at- 
tribute ; and passions the object. 

A phrase is two or more words rightly put to 
gether, making sometimes a part of a sentence, 
and sometimes a whole sentence. 

Ellipsis is the omission of some word or 
words, in order to avoid disagreeable and unne- 
cessary repetitions, and to express our ideas con- 
cisely, and with strength and elegance. 

In this recapitulation of the rules, Syntax is presented in a 
condensed form, many of the essential Notes being omitted. 
This is a necessary consequence of my general plan, in which 
Etymology and Syntax, you know, are blended. Hence, to 



176 RULES OF SYNTAX. 

acquire a complete knowledge of Syntax from this work, you 
must look over the whole. 

You may now proceed and parse the following additional ex- 
ercises in false Syntax ; and, as you analyze, endeavour to cor- 
rect all the errours without looking at the Key. If, in correct- 
ing these examples, you should be at a loss in assigning the rea- 
sons why the constructions are erroneous, you can refer to the 
manner adopted in the foregoing pages. 

RUI,E I. 

The article a or an agrees with nouns in the 
singular number only, individually or collec- 
tively; as, " Jl star, an eagle, a score, a thou- 
sand." 

RULE II. 

The definite article the belongs to nouns in the 
singular or plural number ; as, " The star, the 
stars ; the hat, the hats." 

Note 1. A nice distinction in the meaning is sometimes effected by the 
use or omission of the article a. If I say, " He behaved with a little reve- 
rence," my meaning is positive. But if I say, " He behaved with little reve- 
rence," my meaning is negative. By the former, I rather praise a person ; 
by the latter, I dispraise him. When I say, " There were few men with him," 
I speak diminutively, and mean to represent them as inconsiderable ; where- 
as, when I say, " There were a few men with him," I evidently intend to 
make the most of them. 

2. The indefinite article sometimes has the meaning of every or each ; as, 
" They cost five shillings a dozen ;" that is, * every dozen.' 

" A man he was to all the country dear, 
" And passing rich with forty pounds a year !" 
that is, ' every year.' 

3. When several adjectives are connected, and express the various quali- 
ties of things individually different, though alike in name, the article should 
be repeated ; but when the qualities all belong to the same thing or things, 
the article should not be repeated. "Jl black and a white calf," signifies, A 
black calf, and a white calf; but " Jl black and white calf," describes the two 
colours of one calf. 

RULE III. 



u 



The nominative case governs the verb ; as, 
learn, thou learnest, he learns, they learn." 

RULE IV. 

The verb must agree with its nominative in 
number and person; as, "The bird sings, the 
birds sing, thou singest" 

Note 1. Every verb, when it is not in the infinitive mood, must have a 
nominative, expressed or implied} as, " Awake, arise;" that is, Awake ye; 
arise ye. 



RULES OF SYNTAX. 177 

2. When a verb comes between two nouns, either of which may be con- 
sidered as the subject of the affirmation, it must agree with that which is 
more naturally its subject ; as, " The wages of sin is death ; His meat was 
locusts and wild honey ;" " His pavilion were dark waters and thick clouds." 

EXAMPLES OF FALSE SYNTAX. 

Frequent commission of sin harden men in it. 

Great pains has been taken to reconcile the parties. 

So much both of ability and merit, are seldom found. 

The sincere is always esteemed. 

Not one of them are happy. 

What avails the best sentiments, if people do not live suit- 
ably to them ? 

Disappointments sinks the heart of man ; but the renewal of 
hope give consolation. 

The variety of the productions of genius, like that of the 
operations of nature, are without limit. , 

A variety of blessings have been conferred upon us. 

Thou cannot heal him, it is true, but thou may do something 
to relieve him. 

In piety and virtue consist the happiness of man. 

O thou, my voice inspire, 

Who touched Jx-aiah's hallowed lips with fire. 

Note 1. Will martial flames for ever fire thy mind, 

And never, never be to Heaven resigned ? 

He was a man whose inclinations led him to be corrupt, and 
had great abilities to manage the business. 
Note 2. The crown of virtue is peace and honour. 

His chief occupation and enjoyment were controversy. 

RULE V. 

When an address is made, the noun or pronoun 
addressed, is put in the nominative case indepen- 
dent; as, " Plato, thou reasonest well;" "Do, 
Trim, said my uncle Toby." 

Note 1. A noun is independent, when it has no verb to agree with it. 

2. Interjections require the objective case of a pronoun of the first person 
after them, but the nominative of a noun or pronoun of the second or third 
person ; as, " Ah ! me ; Oh ! thou ; O ! virtue." 

RULE VI. 

A noun or pronoun placed before a participle, 
and being independent of the rest of the sen- 
tence, is in the nominative case absolute ; as, 
" Shame being lost, all virtue is lost ;" " The sun 
being risen, we travelled on." 



178 RULES OF SYNTAX. 

Note. Every nominative case, except the case absolute and independent 
should belong to some verb expressed or understood j as, " To whom thus 
Jldam ;" that is, spoke. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Him Destroyed, 
Or won to what may work his utter loss, 
All this will follow soon. 

Note. — Two substantives, when they come together, and do 
not signify the same thing, the former must be in the genitive 
case. 

Virtue, however it may be neglected for a time, men are so 
constituted as ultimately to acknowledge and respect genuine 
merit. 

RULE VII. 

Two or more nouns, or nouns and pronouns, 
signifying the same thing, are put, by apposition, 
in the same ease; as, " Paid the apostle;' 9 "Joram 
the king;" "Solomon, the son of David, king of 
Israel, wrote many proverbs." 

Note. A noun is sometimes put in apposition with a sentence ; as, " The 
sheriff has just seized and sold his valuable library — (which was) a misfortune 
that greatly depressed him." 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

We ought to love God, he who created and sustains all things. 

The pronoun he in this sentence, is improperly used in the nominative case. 
Ft is the object of the action of the transitive verb " love," and put by appo- 
sition with " God ;" therefore it should be the objective case, him, according 
to Rule 7. (Repeat the Rule, and correct the following.) 

I saw Juliet and her brother, they that you visited. 

They slew Varus, he that was mentioned before. 

It was John, him who preached repentance. 

Adams and Jefferson, them who died on the fourth of July, 
1826, were both signers and the firm supporters of the Declara- 
tion of Independence. 

Augustus the Roman emperor, him who succeeded Julius 
Cesar, is variously described by historians* 

RTJXE VIII. 

Two or more nouns, or nouns and pronouns > 
in the singular number, connected by copulative 
conjunctions, must have verbs, nouns, and pro- 
nouns, agreeing with them in the plural; as, 
" Socrates and Plato were wise ; they were emi- 
nent philosophers" 



RULES OF SYNTAX. 179 

Note 1. When each or every relates to two or more nominatives in the sin- 
gular, although connected by a copulative, the verb must agree with each of 
them in the singular; as, "Every leaf, and every twig, and every drop of wa- 
ter, teems with life." 

2. When the singular nominative of a complex sentence, has another noun 
joined to it with a preposition, it is customary to put the verb and pronoun 
agreeing with it, in the singular; as, " Prosperity with humility, renders its 
possessor truly amiable ;" " The General, also, in conjunction with the offi- 
cers, has applied for redress." 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Coffee and sugar grows in the West Indies : it is exported in 

large quantities. 

Two singular nouns coupled together, form a plural idea. The verb grows 
is improper, because it expresses the action of both its nominatives, ■* coffee 
and sugar," which two nominatives are connected by the copulative con- 
junction, and; therefore the verb should be plural, grow ; and then it would 
agree with coffee and sugar, according to Rule 8. (Repeat the Rule.) The 
pronoun it, as it represents both the nouns, " coffee and sugar," ought also 
to be plural, they, agreeably to Rule 8. The sentence should be written 
thus, " Coffee and sugar grow in the West Indies : they are exported in large 
quantities." 

Time and tide waits for no man. 

Patience and diligence, like faith, removes mountains. 

Life and health is 1)oth uncertain. 

Wisdom, virtue, happiness, dwells with the golden mediocrity* 

The planetary system, boundless space, and the immense 
ocean, affects the mind with sensations of astonishment. 

What signifies the counsel and care of preceptors, when you 
think you have no need of assistance 1 

Their love, and their hatred, and their envy, is now perished. 

Why is whiteness and coldness in snow 1 

Obey the commandment of thy father, and the law of thy 
mother : bind it continually upon thy heart. 

Pride and vanity always render its possessor despicable in the 
eyes of the judicious. 

There is errour and discrepance in the schemes of the 
orthoepists, which shows the impossibility of carrying them into 
effect. 

EXAMPLES FOR THE NOTE. 

Every man, woman, and child, were numbered. 

Not proper ; for, although and couples things together so as to present the 
whole at one view, yet every has a contrary effect : it distributes them, and 
brings each separately and singly under consideration. Were numbered is 
therefore improper. It should be, "icas numbered," in the singular, ac- 
cording to the Note. (Repeat it.) 

When benignity and gentleness reign in our breasts, every 
person and every occurrence are beheld in the most favourable 
light. 



180 RULES OP SYNTAX. 

RULE IX. 

Two or more nouns, or nouns and pronouns, in 
the singular number, connected by disjunctive 
conjunctions, must have verbs, nouns, and pro- 
nouns, agreeing with them in the singular ; as, 
" Neither John nor James has learned his lesson." 

Note 1. When singular pronouns, or a noun and pronoun, of different 
persons, are disjunctively connected, the verb must agree, in person, with 
that which is placed nearest to it \ as, " Thou or I am in fault ; I or thou art 
to blaine ; I, or thou, or he, is the author of it." But it would be better to 
say, " Either I am to blame or thou art," &c. 

2. When a disjunctive occurs between a singular noun or pronoun and a 
plural one, the verb must agree with the plural noun or pronoun, which 
should generally be placed next to the verb ; as, " Neither poverty nor riches 
were injurious to him ;" " I or they were offended by it." 
Constructions like these ought generally to be avoided. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Ignorance or negligence have caused this mistake. 
The verb, have caused, in this sentence, is improperly used in the plural. 
because it expresses the action, not of both, but of either the one or the other 
of its nominatives ; therefore it should be in the singular, has caused ; and 
then it would agree with "ignorance or negligence," agreeably to Rule 9* 
(Repeat the Rule.) 

A circle or a square are the same in idea. 

Neither whiteness nor redness are in the porphyry. 

Neither of them are remarkable for precision. 

Man is *iot such a machine as a clock or a watch, which move 
merely as they are moved. 

When sickness, infirmity, or reverse of fortune, affect us, the 
sincerity of friendship is proved. 

Man's happiness or misery are, in a great measure, put into 
his own hands. 

Despise no infirmity of mind or body, nor any condition of 
life, for they may be thy own lot. 

The prince, as well as the people, were blameworthy. 

RUIiE X. 

A collective noun or noun of multitude, con- 
veying unity of idea, generally has a verb or pro- 
noun agreeing with it in the singular; as, "The 
meeting teas large, and it held three hours." 

Note. Rules 10, and 1 1, are limited in their application. See page 59. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

The nation are powerful. 

The fleet were seen sailing up the channel. 

The church have no power to inflict corporal punishment. 



RULES OP SYNTAX. 181 

The flock, and not the fleece, are, or ought to be, the objects 
of the shepherd's care. 

That nation was once powerful ; but now they are feeble. 

RULE XI. 

A noun of multitude, conveying plurality of 
idea, must have a verb or pronoun agreeing with 
it in the plural ; as, " The council ivere divided 
in their sentiments/' 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

My people doth not consider. 

The multitude eagerly pursues pleasure as its chief good. 
The committee was divided in its sentiments, and it has re- 
ferred the business to the general meeting. 

The people rejoices in that which should give it sorrow. 

RULE XII. 

A noun or pronoun in the possessive case, is 

governed b)^ the noun it possesses ; as, " Marts 
appiness ;" "Its value is great." 

Note. 1. When the possessor is described by a circumlocution, the pos- 
sessive sign should generally be applied to the last term only ; as, " The 
duke of Bridgeioater's canal; The bishop of Landaff's excellent book; The 
captain of the guard's house." This usage, however, ought generally to 
De avoided. The words do not literally convey the ideas intended. What 
nonsense to say, " This is the governmr of Ohio's house !" 

2. When nouns in the possessive case are in apposition, and follow each 
other in quick succession, the possessive sign is generally annexed to the 
last only ; as, " For David my servant's sake ; John the Baptist's head ; The 
canal was built in consequence of De Witt Cli7iton the governour' s advice- ,? 

But when a pause is proper, and the governing noun not expressed, *he 
sign should be applied to the first possessive only, and understood to the 
rest-; as, " I reside at Lord Stormont's, my old patron and benefactor.' 9 

3. Its, the possessive case of it, is often improperly used for 'tis, or, it is ; 
as, "Its my book : Its his," &c. ; instead of, " It is my book ; or, 'Tis my 
book ; It is his ; or, 'Tis his." 

4. Participles frequently govern nouns and pronouns in the possessive 
case ; as, " In case of his majesty's dying witnout issue, &c. ; Upon God's 
'laving ended all his works, &c. ; I remember its being reckoned a great ex- 
ploit ; At my coming in he said," &c. But in such instances,the participle 
with its adjuncts may be considered a substantive phrase, according to Note 
2, Rule 28. 

5. Phrases like these, " A work of Washiiigton Irving' s>; A brother of 7b- 
seph's; A friend of mine ; A neighbour of yours," do not, as some have sup- 
posed, each contain a double possessive, or two possessive cases, but they 
may be thus construed ; " A work of (out of, or, among the number of) Wash- 
ington Irving' s works; that is, One of the works of Washington Irving ; One 
of the brothers of Joseph; One friend of my friends ; One neighbour of your 
neighbours." 

16 



182 RULES OF SYNTAX. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Homers works are much admired. 

Nevertheless, Asa his heart was not perfect with the Lord 

James Hart, his book, bought August the 19, 1829. 

Note 1. It was the men's, women's, and children's lot to 
suffer great calamities. 

This is Peter's, John's, and Andrew's occupation. 

Note 2. This is Campbell's the poet's production. 

The silk was purchased at Brown's, the mercer's and hab- 
erdasher's. 

Note 4. Much will depend on the pupil composing frequently. 

Much depends on this rule being observed. 

The measure failed in consequence of the president neglect- 
ing to lay it before the council. 

RULE XIII. 

Personal pronouns must agree with the nouns 
for which they stand, in gender and number ; as, 
" John writes, and he will soon write well." 

Note. You, though frequently employed to represent a singular noun, is 
always plural inform; therefore the verb connected with it should be plural ; 
as, " My friend, you were mistaken." See pages 99 and 100. 

FALSE SXNTAX. 
Every man will be rewarded according to their works. 

Incorrect, because the pronoun their does not agree in gender or number 
with the noun "man," for which it stands ; consequently Rule 13, is violated., 
Their should be his; and then the pronoun would be of the masculine gen- 
der, singular number, agreeing with man, according to Rule 13. (Repeat thc> 
Rule.) " 

An orator's tongue should be agreeable to the ear of theii 
audience. 

Rebecca took goodly raiment, and put them on Jacob. 

Take handful s of ashes, and let Moses sprinkle it towards 
heaven, in the sight of Pharaoh, and it shall become small dust. 

]N o one should incur censure for being tender of their reputa- 
tion. 

Note. Horace, you was blamed ; and I think you was worthy 
of censure. 

Witness, where was you standing during the transaction 1 
How far was you from the defendant] 

RULE XIV. 

Relative pronouns agree with their antecedents, 
in gender, person, and number ; as, "Thou who 
lovest wisdom ;" " I who speak from experience." 



RULES OP SYNTAX. 183 

Note. When a relative pronoun is preceded by two antecedents of differ- 
ent persons, the relative and the verb may agree in person with either, but 
not without regard to the sense ; as, " I am the man icho command you ;" 
or, "I am the man who commands you." The meaning of the first of these 
examples will more obviously appear, if we render it thus : " I who com- 
mand you, am the munj" 

When the agreement of the relative has been fixed with either of the pre- 
ceding antecedents, it must be preserved throughout the sentence ; as, " I 
am the Lord, that maketh all things ; that stretcheth forth the heavens alone ; 
that spreadeth abroad the earth by myself," &c. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Thou who has been a witness of the fact, canst state it. 

The wheel killed another man, which make the sixth which 
have lost their lives by this means. 

Thou great First Cause, least understood ! 

Who all my sense confined. 

Note, 2d part Thou art the Lord, who didst choose Abra- 
ham, and brought him forth out of Ur of the Chaldees. 

RULE XV. 

The relative is the nominative case to the verb, 
when no nominative comes between it and the 
verb ; as, " The master who taught us, was emi- 
nent." 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

If he will not hear his best friend, whom shall be sent to 
admonish him. 

This is the man whom, he informed me, was my benefactor. 

RULE XVI. 

When a nominative comes between the relative 
and the verb, the relative is governed by the fol- 
lowing verb, or by some other word in its own 
member of the sentence ; as, " He whom I serve, 
is eternal." 

Note 1. Who, which, what, tbe relative that, and their compounds, whom' 
ever, whorrisoever, &c., though in the objective case, are always placed before 
the verb ; as, " He whom ye seek, has gone hence." 

2. Every relative must have an antecedent to which it relates, either ex- 
pressed or implied ; as, " Who steals my purse,steals trash ;" that is, At? who, 

3. The pronouns whichsoever, whatsoever, and the like, are sometimes ele 
gantly divided by the interposition of the corresponding nouns; as, u On 
which side soever the king cast his eyes," &c. 

4. The pronoun what is sometimes improperly used instead of the con- 
junction that ; as, " He would not believe but what I was in fault " It should 
be, " but that" &c. 



184 RULES OF SYNTAX. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

That is the friend who I sincerely esteem. 

Not proper, because who, which is the object of the action expressed by 
the transitive verb " esteem," is in the nominative case. It ought to be whom, 
in the objective ; and then it would be governed by esteem, according to 
Rule 16. (Repeat the Rule :)— and, also, according to Rule 20. "That is 
the friend whom I sincerely esteem." 

They who much is given to, will have much to answer for. 

From the character oC those who you associate with, your 
own will be estimated. 

He is a man who I greatly respect. 

Our benefactors and tutors are the persons who we ought to 
love, and who we ought to be grateful to. 

They who conscience and virtue support, may smile at the 
caprices of fortune. 

Who did you walk with? 

Who did you see there ? 

Who did you give the book to ? 

RULE XVII. 

When a relative pronoun is of the interrogative 
kind, it refers to the word or phrase containing 
the answer to the question for its subsequent, 
which subsequent must agree in case with the in- 
terrogative; as, " Whose book is that? Joseph's ;* 
" Who gave you this ? John" 

Note. Whether the interrogative really refers to a subsequent or not, is 
doubtful ; but it is certain that the subsequent should agree in case with the 
interrogative. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 
Who gave John those books ? Us. Of whom did you buy 
them ? Of a bookseller, he who lives in Pearl-street. 
Who walked with you ? My brother and him. 
Who will accompany me to the country 1 Her and me. 
RUMS XVIII. 

Adjectives belong to, and qualify nouns, ex- 
pressed or understood ; as, " He is a good, as 
well as a wise man." 

Note 1. Adjectives frequently belong to pronouns ; as, "Jam miserable; 
He is industrious." 

2. Numeral adjectives belong to nouns, which nouns must agree in num- 
ber with their adjectives, when of the cardinal kind; as, "Ten feet; Eighty 
fathoms," But some anomalous and figurative expressions form an exception 
to this rule ; as, " A fleet of forty sail;" " Two hundred head of cattle." 

3. Adjectives sometimes belong to verbs in the infinitive mood, or to a part 
of a sentence ; as, " To see is pleasant ; To be blind is unfortunate ; To die 
r or our country, is glwious." 



RULES OF SYNTAX. 185 

4. Adjectives are often used to modify the sense of other adjectives, or the 
action of verbs, and to express the quality of things in connexion with the 
action by which that quality is produced ; as, " Red hot iron ; Pale blue 
lining; Deep sea-green sash ; The apples boil soft ; Open your hand wide; 
The clay burns white ; The fire burns blue; The eggs boil hard." 

5. When an adjective is preceded by a preposition, and the noun is under- 
stood, the two words may be considered an adverbial phrase ; as, " In ge- 
neral, in particular ;" that is, generally, particularly. 

6. Adjectives should be placed next to the nouns which they qualify ; as, 
" A tract of good land." 

7. We should generally avoid comparing such adjectives as do not literal- 
ly admit of comparison ; such as, more impossible, most impossible ; more im- 
conquerable, more perfect, <$»c. See Remarks on adjectives, page 76. 

8. When an adjective or an adverb is used in comparing two objects, it 
should be- in the comparative degree ; but when more than two are com- 
pared, the superlative ought to be employed ; as, " Julia is the laUer of the 
two ; Her specimen is the best of the three." 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Note 2. The boat carries thirty tun. 

The chasm was twenty foot broad, and one hundred fathom 
m depth. 

Note 6. He bought a new pair of shoes, and an elegant piece 
of furniture. 

My cousin gave his fine pair of horses for a poor tract of 
land. 

Note 7. The contradictions of impiety are still more incom- 
prehensible. 

It is the most uncertain way that can be devised. 

This is a more perfect model than I ever saw before. 

Note 8. Which of those two cords is the strongest 1 

I was at a loss to determine which was the wiser of the three. 

RULE XIX. 

Adjective pronouns belong to nouns, express- 
ed or understood ; as, u Any man, all men." 

Note 1. The demonstrative adjective pronouns must agree in number 
with their nouns ; as, " This book, these books ; that sort, those sorts." 

2. The pronominal adjectives, each, every, either, neither, another, and one, 
agree with nouns in the singular number only ; as, "Each man, every per- 
son, another lesson ;" unless the plural nouns convey a collective idea : as, 
"Every six months." 

3. Either is often improperly employed instead of each; as, " The king of 
Israel, and Jehoshaphat the king of Judah, sat either of them on his throne." 
Each signifies both taken separately ; either implies only the one or the other 
taken disjunctively: — u sat each on his throne." 

FALSE SYNTAX. 
Note 1. Those sort of favours do real injury. 
They have been playing this two hours. 
These kind of indulgences soften and injure the mind. 
He saw one or more persons enter the garden,. 

16* 



186 RULES OF SYNTAX. 

Note 2. Let each esteem others better than themselves. 
There are bodies, each of which are so small as to be invisible* 
Every person, whatever their station may be, are bound by 
the laws of morality and religion. 

Note 3. On either side of the river was the tree of life. 
Nadab and Abihu took either of them his censer. 

RUM2 XX. 

Active-transitive verbs govern the objective 
case ; as, " Cesar conquered Pompey ;" " Colum- 
bus discovered America ;" " Truth ennobles her? 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Ye who were dead, hath he quickened. 

Ye, in the nominative case, is erroneous, because it is the object of the ac- 
tion expressed by the transitive verb " hath quickened ;" and therefore it 
should be you, in the objective case. You would then be governed by " hath 
quickened," agreeably to Rule 20. Active-transitive verbs govern the objective 
case. 

Who did they entertain so freely ? 

They who opulence has made proud, and who luxury has 
corrupted, cannot relish the simple pleasures of nature. 

He and they we know, but who are ye 1 

She that is negligent, reprove sharply. 

He invited my brother and I to pay him a visit. 

Who did they send on that mission ? 

They who he has most injured, he had the greatest reason to 
love. 

RULE XXI. 

The verb to be may have the same case after it 
as before it ; as, " / am the man ;" " I believe it to 
have been them ;" " He is the thief? 

Note 1. When nouns or pronouns next preceding and following the verb 
to be, signify the same thing, they are in apposition, and, therefore, in tho 
$am,e case. Rule 21 is predicated on the principle contained in Rule 7. 

2. The verb to be is often understood ; as, " The Lord made me man; He 
made him what he was ;" that is, " The Lord made me to be man ; He made 
him to be that which he was." " They desired me to call them brethren;" i. e. 
by the name o/brethren. " They named him John;" i. e. by the name of John ; 
or, by the name John : putting these two nouns in apposition. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

I know it to be they. 

Improper, because it is in the objective case before the verb "to be," and 
they is in the nominative after ; consequently, Rule 21 is violated. They is 
in apposition with it, therefore they should be them, in the objective after to 
be, according to Rule 21. (Repeat the Rule.) 



RULES OF SYNTAX. 187 

Be composed, it is me. 

would not act thus, if I were him. 
Well may you be afraid ; it is him, indeed. 
Who do you fancy him to be ? 

Whom do men say that I am? Whom say ye that I am ? 
If it was not him, who do you imagine it to have been ? 
He supposed it was me ; but you knew that it was him. 

RULE XXII. 

Active-intransitive and passive verbs, the verb 
to become, and other neuter verbs, have the same 
case after them as before them, when both words 
refer to, and signffy, the same thing; as, " Tom 
struts a soldier;" "Will sneaks a scrivener;" 
"He was called Cesar;" "The general was sa- 
luted emperour ;" " They have become fools" 

Note 1. Active-intransitive verbs sometimes assume a transitive form, 
and govern the objective case ; as, " To dream a dream; To run a race; To 
walk the horse ; To dance the child; To fly the kite. 11 

2. According to a usage too common in colloquial style, an agent not 
literally the correct one, is employed as the nominative to a passive verb, 
which causes the verb to be followed by an objective case without the possi- 
bility of supplying before it a preposition : thus, " Pitticus was offered a large 
sum by the king;" " She was promised them (the jewels) by her mother;" 
" J was asked a question 11 It would be better sense, and more agreeable to 
the idiom of our language, to say, " A large sum was offered to Pitticus ;" 
11 They were promised (to) her ;" " A question was put to me. 11 

3. Some passive verbs are formed by using the participles of compound 
active verbs. To smile, to wonder, to dream, are intransitive verbs, for whicn 
reason they«have no passive voice ; but, to smile on, to wonder at, to dream 
of, are compound active-transitive verbs, and, therefore, admit of a passive 
voice ; as, " He was smiled on by fortune; The accident is not to be won- 
dered at ;" 

" There are more things in heaven and earth, Horatio, 
" Than are dreamed of in your philosophy." 

RULE XXIII. 

A verb in the infinitive mood may be governed 
by a verb, noun, adjective, participle, or pronoun ; 
as, " Cease to do evil ;" " We all have our ta- 
lent to be improved ;" " She is eager to learn ;" 
" They are preparing to go;" " Let him do it." 

Illustration. The supposed principle of government referred to in this 
ru\e, may be thus illustrated. In the sentence, " Cease to do evil," the pe- 
culiar manraer in which cease is introduced, requires or compels us to put the 
verb do in the infinitive mood ; and, according to the genius of our language, 
we cannot express this act of doing, when thus connected with cease, m any 
other mood, unless we change the construction of the sentence. H' Tice we 



188 RULES OP SYNTAX. 

say, that cease governs the mood of the verb do. Similar remarks may be 
applied to the words talent, eager, preparing, and him, in the respective ex- 
amples under the rule. 

Many respectable grammarians refer the government of this mood inva- 
riably to the preposition to prefixed, which word they do not, of course, con- 
sider a part of the verb. Others contend, and with some plausibility, that 
this mood is not governed by any particular word. II we reject the idea of 
government, as applied to the verb in this mood, the following rule, if sub- 
stituted for the foregoing, might, perhaps, answer all practical purposes. 

RTJU3. 

A verb in the infinitive mood, refers to some 
noun or pronoun, as its subject or actor. 

Illustration of the examples under Rule XXIII. " To do" refers to 
thou understood for its agent ; " to be improved" refers to talent; "to 
learn," to she ; " to go," to they ; and " to do," refers to him* 

Note 1. The infinitive mood absolute stands independent of the rest of 
the sentence ; as, " To confess the truth, I was in fault." 

2. - The infinitive mood is sometimes governed by conjunctions or ad- 
verbs ; as, " An object so high as to be invisible j" " He is wise enough to de- 
ceive ;" " The army is about to march* 11 

RULE XXIV. 

The infinitive mood, or part of a sentence, is fre- 
quently put as the nominative case to a verb, or 
the object of an active-transitive verb ; as, " To 
play is pleasant ;" " Boys love to play ;" " Thai 
warm climates shorten life, is reasonable to sup- 
pose ;" " He does not consider how near he ap- 
proaches to his end" 

Note. To, the sign of the infinitive mood, is sometimes properly omit- 
ted ; as, " I heard him say it j" instead of, " to say it." 

RUM XXV. 

The verbs which follow bid, dare, need, make, 
see, hear, feel, help, let, and their participles, are 
in the infinitive mood without the sign to prefixed; 
as, "He bids me come;" " I dare engage;" 
" Let me go ;" " Help me do it ;" i. e. to come, 
to go, to do it, &c. " He is hearing me recite" 
FALSE SYNTAX/ 

Bid him to come. 

He durst not to do it without permission. 

Hear him to read his lesson. 

It is the difference in their conduct, which makes us to &p \ 
prove the one, and to reject the other. 

It is better live on a little, than outlive a great deal 

I wish him not wrestle with his happiness. 



RULES OF SYNTAX. 180 

KUI-E XXVI. 

Participles have the same government as the 
verbs have from which they are derived ; as, " I 
saw the tutor instructing his pupils" 

Note. The present participle with the definite article the before it, be- 
comes a noun, and must have the preposition of after it. The and of must 
both be used, or both be omitted ; as, " By the observing of truth, you will 
command respect ;" or, " By observing truth," &c. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Note. We cannot be wise and good without the taking 
pains for it. 

The changing times and seasons, the removing and setting 
up kings, belong to Providence alone. 

These are the rules of grammar, by observing of which you 
may avoid mistakes. 

RULE XXVII. 

The present participle refers to some noun or 
pronoun denoting the subject or actor ; as, "I 
see a boy running" 

RTTT.P! XXVTTT. 

The perfect participle belongs, like an adjec- 
tive, to some noun or pronoun, expressed or un- 
derstood ; as, " I saw the boy abused" 

Note 1. Participles of neuter vei-bs have the same case after them as be- 
fore them ; as, " Pontius Pilate being Governour of Judea, and Herod being 
Tetrarch," &c. 

2. A participle with its adjuncts, may sometimes be considered as a sub- 
stantive or participial phrase, which phrase may be the subject of a verb, or 
the object of a verb or preposition ; as, " Taking from another without his 
hnmoledge or assent, is called stealing ; He studied to avoid expressing nimself 
too severely ; I cannot fail of having money, &c. ; By promising much and per- 
forming but little, we become despicable." 

3. As the perfect participle and the imperfect tense of irregular verbs, are 
sometimes different in their form, care must be taken that tht>y be not indis- 
criminately used. It is frequently said, * he begun,' for * he began j' * He 
run,' for, * he ran ;' * He come,' for * he came ;' the participles being here 
used instead of the imperfect tense ; and much more frequently is the im- 
perfect tense employed instead of the participle ; as, * I had wrote,' for ■ I 
had written ;' 'I was chose,' for l l was chosen ;' ' I have eat,' for * I have 
eaten.' ' He would have spoke j' — spoken. ' He overrun his guide j' — overran 

' The sun had rose ;* — risen. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

I seen him. I have saw many a one. 

Seen is improper, the perfect participle being used instead of the imperfect 
'ense of the verb. It ought to be, " I saw him," according to Note 3. Havt 



190 RULES OF SYNTAX. 

saw? is also erroneous, the imperfect tense being employed instead of the per- 
fect participle. The perfect tense of a verb is formed by combining the auxi- 
liary have with its perfect participle: therefore the sentence should be writ- 
ten thus, " I have seen many a one :" Note 3. 

Note 3. He done me no harm, for I had wrote my letter 
before he come home. 

Had not that misfortune befel my cousin, he would have went 
to Europe long ago. 

The sun had already arose, when I began my journey. 

Since the work is began, it must be prosecuted. 

The French language is spoke in every state in Europe. 

He writes as the best authors would have wrote, had they 
ivrit on the same subject. 

RU&E XXIX. 

Adverbs qualify verbs, participles, adjectives, 
and other adverbs ; as, " A very good pen writes 
extremely ivell ;" "By living temperately," &c. 

Note 1. Adverbs are generally set before adjectives or adverbs, after 
verbs, or between the auxiliary and the verb ; as, " He made a very sensible 
discourse, and was attentively heard." 

2. When the qualifying word which follows a verb, expresses quality, it 
must be an adjective, but when it expresses manner, an adverb should be 
used; as, " She looks cold ; She luuks culdly on him j He feels warm; Ho 
feels warmly the insult offered to him." If the verb to be can be substituted 
for the one employed, an adjective should foilow, and not an adverb ; as, 
"She looks [is] cold; The hay smells [is] sweet; The fields look [are] green; 
The apples taste [are] sour; The wind blows [is] fresh," 

3. It is not strictly proper to apply the adverbs here, there, and where, to 
verbs signifying motion, instead of the adverbs hither, thither, whilher : thus, 
" He came here [hither] hastily ;" " They rode there [thither] in two 
hours ;" " Where [whither] will he go?" But in familiar style, these con- 
structions are so far sanctioned as sometimes to be admissible. 

4. The use of where, instead of in which, in constructions like the follow- 
ing, is hardly admissible : " The immortal sages of '76, formed a charter, 
where [in zvhizh] their rights are boldly asserted." 

5. As the adverbs hence, thence, and whence, literally supply the place of 
a noun and preposition, there appears to be a solecism in employing a pre- 
position in conjunction with them . " From whence it follows ;" " He came 
from thence since morning." Better, " whence it follows ;" " He came 
thence." The following phrases are also exceptionable : " The then minis- 
try ;" " The above argument ;" " Ask me never so much dowry j_ M " Charm 
he never so wisely." Better, " The ministry of that time or period;" " The 
preceding argument j" " Ever so much dowry ;" " Ever so wisely." 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Note 1. It cannot be impertinent or ridiculous therefore to 
remonstrate. 

He was pleasing not often, because he was vain. 

These things should be never separated. 

We may happily live, though our possessions are small. 



RULES OP SYNTAX. 19i 

RULE XXX. 

Two negatives destroy one another, and are 
generally equivalent to an affirmative ; as, " Such 
things are not wwcommon ;" i. e. they are com- 
mon. 

Note. When one of the two negatives employed is joined to another 
■word, it forms a pleasing and delicate variety of expression ; as, " His lan- 
guage, though inelegant, is not imgrammatical ;" that is, it is grammatical. 

But, as two negatives, hy destroying each other, are equivalent to an af- 
firmative, they should not be used when we wish to convey a negative meaning. 
The following sentence is therefore inaccurate : M I cannot by no means allow 
him what his argument must prove." It should be, " I cannot by any means," 
&c, or, " I can by no means." 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Note, 2d part I don't know nothing about it. 
I did not see nobody there. Nothing never affects her. 
Be honest, nor take no shape nor semblance of disguise. 
There cannot be nothing more insignificant than vanity. 
Precept nor discipline is not so forcible as example. 

RULE XXXI. 

Prepositions govern the objective case ; as, 
"He went from Utica to Rome, and then passed 
through Redfield." 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Each is accountable for hisself. 
They settled it among theirselves. 
It is not I who he is displeased with. 
Who did you go with 1 
Who did you receive instruction from ? 

RULE XXXII. 

Home, and nouns signifying distance, time when, 
hovj long, &c. are generally governed by a pre- 
position understood ; as, " The horse ran a mile ;" 
" He came home last June;" "My friend lived 
four years at college ;" that is, ran through the 
space of a mile ; or, ran over a space called a 
mile ; to his home in last June ; during four years, 
&c. 

Note 1. The prepositions to and for are often understood, chiefly before 
the pronouns ; as, " Give [to] me a book ; Get [for] him some paper." 
2. To or unto, is, by some, supposed to be understood after like and 



192 RULES OP SYNTAX. 

unlike; as, "He is like [unto] bis brother; She is unlike [to] him. ,# Others 
consider this mode of expression an idiom of the language, and maintain 
that like governs the objective following it. 

3. Nouns signifying extension, duration, quantity, quality, or value, are 
used without a governing word ; as, " The Ohio is one thousand miles long ; 
She *s ten years old ; My hat is worth ten dollars.' 1 These are sometimes 
considered anomalies. Seepage 163. 

RULE XXXIII. 

Conjunctions connect nouns and pronouns in 
the same case ; as, " The master taught her and 
me to write ;" " He and she are associates." 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

My brother and him are grammarians. 
You and me enjoy great privileges. 

Him and I went to the city in company ; but John and him 
returned without me. 

Between you and I there is a great disparity of years. 
RULE XXXIV. 

Conjunctions generally connect verbs of like 
moods and tenses ; as, " If thou sincerely desire, 
and earnestly pursue virtue, she will assuredly be 
found by thee, and prove a rich reward." 

Note 1. When different moods and tenses are connected by conjunctions, 
the nominative must be repeated ; as, " He may return, but he\oill not iarry." 

2. Conjunctions implying contingency or doubt, require the subjunctive 
mood after them; as, "Ifhe study, he will improve." See pages 135, 145, 
and 155. 

3. The conjunctions if, though, unless, except, whether, and lest, generally 
require the subjunctive mood after them. 

4. Conjunctions of a oositive and absolute nature, implying no doubt, re 
quire the indicative mood ; as, " As virtue advances, so vice recedes," 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Did he not tell me his fault, and entreated me to forgive him ? 
Professing regard, and to act differently, discovers a base 
mind. 

Note 1. He has gone home, but may return. 

The attorney executed the deed, but will write no more. 

Note 2. I shall walk to-day, unless it rains. 

Ifhe acquires riches, they will corrupt his mind. 

RUIiE XXXV. 

A noun or pronoun following the conjunction 
than, as, or but, is nominative to a verb, or gov- 
erned by a verb or preposition, expressed or un- 
derstood ; as, " Thou art wiser than I [am"] " I 
saw nobody but [I saiv] him." 



SYNTAX OF THE TENSES. 193 

Note 1. The conjunction as, when it is connected with such, many, or 
same, is sometimes, though erroneously, called a relative pronoun ; as, " Let 
such as presume to advise others," &c. j that is, Let them who, &c. See page 
116. 

2. An ellipsis, or omission of some words, is frequently admitted, which 
must be supplied in the mirid in order to parse grammatically ; as, " Wo is 
me ;" that is, to me ; " To sleep all night ;" i. e. through all the night ; " He 
has gone a journey •*■ i. e. tm. a journey ; U They walked a league ;" i. e. ove\ 
a space called a league. 

3. When the omission of words would obscure the sense, or weaken its 
force, they must be expressed. 

4. In the use of prepositions, and words that relate to each other, we should 
pay particular regard to the meaning of the words or sentences which they 
connect: all the parts of a sentence should correspond to each other, and a 
regular and clear construction throughout should be carefully preserved. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

They are much greater gainers than me. 
They know how to write as well as him ; but he is a better 
grammarian than them. 

They were all well but him. 
None were rewarded but him and me. 
Jesus sought none but they who had gone astray. 
REMARKS ON THE TENSES. 

1 . In the use of verbs, and other words and phrases which, 
in point of time, relate to each other, a due regard to that rela- 
tion should be observed. 

Instead of saying, " The Lord hath given, and the Lord hath taken away ; w 
we should say, " The Lord gave, and the Lord hath taken away." Instead 
of, " I remember the family more than twenty years ;" it should be, " I 
have remembered the family more than twenty years." 

2. The best rule that can be given for the management of the 
tenses, and of words and phrases which, in point of time, relate 
to each other, is this very general one ; Observe what the sense 
necessarily requires. 

To say, " I have visited Washington last summer ; I have seen the work 
more than a month ago," is not good sense. The constructions should be, 
" I visited Washington, &c. ; I saw the work, &c." " This mode of expres- 
sion has been formerly much admired :"— " was formerly much admired." 
" If I had have been there ;" " If I had have seen him ;" " Had you have 
known him," are solecisms too gross to need correction. We can say, I 
have been, I had been ; but what sort of a tense is, had have been ? To 
place had before the defective verb ought, is an errour equally gross and 
illiterate : — " had ought, hadn't ought." This is as low a vulgarism as the 
use of theirn, hern, and hizzen, tother, fiirder, baynt, this ere, I seed it, I 
teWd him. 

3. When we refer to a past action or event, and no part of 
that time in which it took place, remains, the imperfect tense 
should be used ; but if there is still remaining some portion of 
the time in which we declare that the thing has been done, the 
perfect tense should be employed. 

17 



194 SYNTAX OF THE TENSES. 

- ? Thus, we say, " Philosophers made great discoveries in the last century ;" 
" He was much afflicted last year ;" but when we refer to the present cen- 
tury, year, week, day, &c. we ought to use the perfect tense ; as, " Philos- 
ophers have made great discoveries in the present century ;" " He has 
been much afflicted this year;" " I have read the president's message thi3 
week;" "We have heard important news this morning;" because these 
events occurred in this century, this year, this week, and to-day, and still 
there remains a part of this century, yaar, week, and day, of which I speak. 
In general, the perfect tense may be applied wherever the action is con- 
nected with the present time, by the actual existence either of the author 
or of the work, though it may have been performed many centuries ago ; 
but if neither the author nor the work now remains, the perfect tense ought 
not to be employed. Speaking of priests in general, we may say, " They 
have, in all &ges,claimed great powers ;" because the general order of the 
priesthood still exists ; but we cannot properly say, " The Druid priests 
have claimed great powers ;" because that order is now extinct. We ought, 
therefore, to say, " The Druid priests claimed great powers." 

The following examples may serve still farther to illustrate the proper 
use and application of the tenses. " My brother has recently been to 
Philadelphia." It should be, " ivas recently at Philadelphia ;" because the 
adverb recently refers to a time completely past, without any allusion to the 
present time. " Charles is grown considerably since I have seen him the 
last time." Corrected, " Charles has grown, since I saw him," &e. "Pay- 
ment was at length made, but no reason assigned for its being so long 
postponed." Corrected, " for its having been so long postponed." " They 
were arrived an hour before we reached the city :"— " They had arrived." 

" The workmen will complete the building at the time I take possession 
of it." It should be, " will have completed the building," &c. " This curious 
piece of workmanship was preserved, and shown to strangers for more than 
fifty years past :" — " has been preserved, and been shown to strangers," &c. 
" I had rather write than beg :" — " I woidd rather write than beg." 

" On the morrow, because he would have known the certainty whereof Paul 
was accused of the Jews, he loosed him from his bands." It ought to be, 
" because he would know ; or, being willing to know," &c. " The blind mall 
said, * Lord, that I might receive my sight ;' " " If by any means I might 
attain unto the resurrection of the dead." In both these examples, may would 
be preferable to might. " I feared that I should have lost the parcel, before I 
arrived :" — " that I should lose." " It would have afforded me no satisfac- 
tion, if I could perform it." It ought to be, " if I could have performed it ;" or, 
" It would afford me no satisfaction, if I could perform it." " This dedication 
may serve for almost any book that has, is, or shall be published :" — "that 
has been, or will be published." 

4. In order to employ the two tenses of the infinitive mood 
with propriety, particular attention should be paid to the mean- 
ing of what we express. 

Verbs expressive of hope, desire, intention, or command, ought 
to be followed by the present tense of the Infinitive mood. 

" Last week I intended to have written,'' 1 is improper. The intention of 
writing was then present with me ; and, therefore, the construction should 
he, " I intended to write." The following examples are also inaccurate ; " I 
found him better than I expected to have found him ;" " My purpose was, 
after spending ten mjnths more in commerce, to have withdrawn my wealth 
to another country." They should be, "expected to find him;" u to withdraw 
my wealth." 

" This is a book which proves itself to be written by the person whose 
name it bears." It ought to be," which proves itself to have leen written," &Ct 



FALSE SYNTAX. 195 

*Td see him would have afforded me pleasure all my life." Corrected, " To 
have seen him ;" or, " To see him would afford me pleasure," &c. M The argu- 
ments were sufficient to have satisfied all who heard them :" — "were suffi- 
cient to satisfy." " History painters would have found it difficult to hare 
invented such a species of beings:" — "to invent such a species." 

5. General and immutable truths ought to be expressed in 
the present tense. 

Instead of saying, « He did not know that eight and twenty were equal to 
twenty and eight ;" " The preacher said very audibly, that whatever was 
useful, was good ;" " My opponent would not believe, that virtue teas always 
advantageous;" the constructions should be, u are equal to twenty;" 
" whatever is useful, is good ;" " virtue is always advantageous." 

EXAMPLES IN FALSE SYNTAX PROMISCUOUSLY 

ARRANGED. 

We adore the Divine Being, he who is from eternity to 
eternity. 

On these causes depend all the happiness or misery which 
exist among men. 

The enemies who we have most to fear, are those of our own 
hearts- 
Is it me or him who you requested to go ? 

Though great has been his disobedience and his folly, yet if 
he sincerely acknowledges his misconduct, he shall be forgiven. 

There were, in the metropolis, much to amuse them. 

By exercising of our memories, they are improved. 

The property of my friend, I mean his books and furniture, 
were wholly consumed. 

Affluence might give us respect in the eyes of the vulgar, but 
will not recommend us to the wise and good. 

The cares of this world, they often choke the growth of virtue. 

They that honour me, I will honour ; and them that despise 
me, shall be lightly esteemed. 

I intended to have called last week, but could not. 

The fields look freshly and gayly since the rain. 

The book is printed very neat, and on fine wove paper. 

I have recently been in Washington, where I have seen Gen. 
Andrew Jackson, he who is now president. 

Take the two first, and, if you please, the three last. 

The Chinese wall is thirty foot high. 

It is an union supported by an hypothesis, merely. 

I have saw him who you wrote to ; and he would have came 
back with me, if he could. 

Not one in fifty of those who call themselves deists, under- 
stand the nature of the religion which they reject. 

If thou studiest diligently, thou will become learned. 

Education is not attended to properly in Spain. 






196 FALSE SYNTAX. 

He know'd it was his duty; and he ought, therefore, to do it 
He has little more of the great man besides the title. 
Richard acted very independent on the occasion. 
We have done no more than it was our duty to have done. 
The time of my friend entering on business, soon arrived. 

His speech is the most perfect specimen I ever saw. 
Calumny and detraction are sparks which, if you do not blow, 
they will go out of themselves. 

Those two authors have each of them their merit. 
Reasons whole pleasure, all the joys of sense, 
Lies in three words, health, peace, and competence. 

A great mass of rocks thrown together by the hand of nature 
with wildness and confusion, strike the mind with more gran- 
deur, than if they were adjusted to one another with the accuratest 
symmetry. 

A lampoon or a satire do not carry in them robbery or murder. 

The side A, with the sides JB and C, compose the triangle. 

If some persons opportunities were never so favourable, they 
would be too indolent to improve. 

It is reported that the governour will come here to-morrow. 

Beauty and innocence should be never separated. 

Extravagance and folly may reduce you to a situation where 
you will have much to fear and little to hope. 

Not one in fifty of our modern infidels are thoroughly versed 
in their knowledge of the Scriptures. 

Virtue and mutual confidence is the soul of friendship. Where 
these are wanting, disgust or hatred often follow little differences. 

An army present a painful sight to a feeling mind. 

To do good to them that hate us, and, on no occasion, to seek 
revenge, is the duty of a christian. 

The polite, accomplished libertine, is but miserable amidst all 
his pleasures : the rude inhabitant of Lapland is happier than 
him. 

There are principles in man, which ever have, and ever will* 
incline him to offend. 

This is one of the duties which requires great circumspection. 

They that honour me, them will I honour. 

Every church and sect have opinions peculiar to themselves, 

Pericles gained such an ascendant over the minds of the Athe- 
nians, that he might be said to attain a monarchical power in 
Athens. 

Thou, Lord, who hath permitted affliction to come upon us, 
shall deliver us from it in due time. 

That writer has given us an account of the manner in which 
Christianity has formerly been propagated among the heathens* 



FALSE SYNTAX- 197 

Though the measure be mysterious, it is not unworthy of your 
attention. 

In his conduct was treachery, and in his words, faithless 
professions. 

After I visited Europe, I returned to America. 

I have not, nor shall not, consent to a proposal so unjust. 

I had intended yesterday to have walked out, but I have been 
again disappointed. 

Five and eight makes thirteen ; five from eight leaves three. 

If he goes to Saratoga next week, it will make eight times 
that he has visited that renowned watering place. 

I could not convince him, that a forgiving disposition was 
nobler than a revengeful one. I consider the first, one of the 
brightest virtues that ever was or can be possessed by man. 

The college consists of one great, and several smaller edifices. 

He would not believe, that honesty was the best policy. 

The edifice was erected sooner than I expected it to have 
been. 

Surely, goodness and mercy shall follow me all the days ot 
my life ; and I will dwell in the house of the Lord for ever. 

If a man have a hundred sheep, and one of them be gone 
astray, doth he not leave the ninety and nine, &c. ? 

He might have completed his task sooner, but he could not 
do it better. 

The most ignorant and the most savage tribes of men, when 
they have looked round on the earth, and on the heavens, could 
not avoid ascribing* their origin to some invisible, designing 
cause, and felt a propensity to adore their Creator. 



CRITICAL NOTES AND OBSERVATIONS. 

bservation 1. The following absurd phrases so common in the sacred 
lesk and elsewhere, should be carefully avoided by all who regard common 
sense : — H Sing the two first and three last verses." Just as if there could be 
more than one first and one last. There may be a. first two, a second two, &c. ; 
a. first three, a second three, a. last three. "Within the two last centuries ;" 
" The second syllable of the three first words;" " The three first of these or- 
thoepists have no rule by which their pronunciation is regulated :" — " the 
xitst two centuries j" u the first three words ;" " the first three of these or- 
thoepists." 

2. Adjectives should not be used to express the manner of action. " The 
fcigher the river, the swifter it flows ;" " James learns easier than Juliet ; he 
sees deeper into the millstone than she:" — "the more sxoiflly it flows;" 

learns more easily ; farther into the millstone." " He conducted the 
coldest of any :" — " the most boldly." 

3. More requires than after it. The following sentences are therefore im- 
proper : " He was more beloved, but not so much admired, as Cinthio ;" 
" Richard is more active, but not so studious, as his companion." The legi- 
timate mode of supplying the ellipses in these constructions, will show their 

17* 



198 CRITICAL REMARKS. 

gross impropriety: thus, " He was more beloved as Cinthio j" " Richard is 
more active as his companion," &e. 

4. Adverbs, as illustrated on page 85, are generally substitutes for two or 
more words belonging to other parts of speech. " Will you accompany me 
to Europe next summer ?" " Yes." " Do you believe that the voyage will 
restore your health ?" " No." In these examples, the adverbs yes and no, 
are substitutes for whole sentences, and, therefore, do not qualify any words 
understood. Yes, in this instance, literally means, " I will accompany you to 
Europe next summer ;" and no, " I do not believe that the voyage will restore my 
health." Many other adverbs are often employed in a similar manner. 

" Firstly," is often improperly used instead of the a.dverb fii*st ; " a good 
deal," instead of, much, or, a. great deal. 

5. A nice distinction should be observed in the use of such and so. The 
former may be employed in expressing quality; the latter, in expressing a 
degree of the quality ; as, " Such a temper is seldom found ;" " So bad a 
temper is seldom found." In the following examples, so should be used in- 
stead of such: " He is such an extravagant young man, that I cannot asso- 
ciate with him ;" " I never before saw such large trees." 

The affected use of cardinal, instead of ordinal numbers, ought not to be 
imitated. " On page forty-five ;" " Look at page nineteen ;"— forty-fifth, 
nineteenth. 

6. In the choice and application of prepositions, particular regard should 
be paid to their meaning as established by the idiom of our language and 
the best usage. " In my proceedings, I have been actuated from the con- 
viction, that I was supporting a righteous cause ;" " He should have pro 
fited from those golden precepts ;" " It is connected to John with the con- 
junction and ;" " Aware that there is, in the minds of many, a strong predi- 
lection in favour of established usages;" "He was made much on at Ar- 
gos ;" " They are resolved of going ;" " The rain has been falling of a long 
time ;" " It is a work deserving of encouragement." These examples may 
be corrected thus, " actuated by the conviction ;" " by those golden pre 
cepts;" "by the conjunction and ;" " predilection for ;" " much of at Ar 
gos ;" " o?i going ;" " falling a long time ;" " deserving encouragement." 

7. The preposition to is used before nouns of place, where they foll©>* 
verbs or participles of motion ; as, " I went to Washington." But at is em 
ployed after the verb to be ; as, " I have been at Washington ;" " He has 
been to New- York, to home," &c. are improper. The preposition in is set 
before countries, cities, and large towns ; " He lives in France, in London, 
in Philadelphia, in Rochester." But before single houses, and cities and 
villages which are in distant countries, at is commonly used ; as, " He lives 
at Park-place ;" " She resides at Vincennes." People in the northern states 
may say, " They live in New-Orleans, or, at New-Orleans." 

8. Passive agents to verbs in the infinitive mood, should not be employed 
as active agents. The following are solecisms : " This house to let f* 
" Horses and carriages to let ;" " Congress has much business to perform 
this session ;" because the agents, house, horses and carriages, and business, 
which are really passive, are, according to these constructions, rendered as 
active. The expressions should be, " This house to be let ;" " Horses and 
carriages to be let ;" " much business to be performed." 

9. Ambiguity. — " Nothing is more to be desired than wisdom." Not 
literally correct, for wisdom is certainly more to be desired than nothing ; but, 
as a figurative expression, it is well established and unexceptionable. 

" A crow is a large black bird :" — a large, black — bird, 
" I saw a horse— fly through the window:" — I saw a horsefly. 
" I saw a ship gliding under full sail through a spyglass." I saw, through 
7i spy glass, a ship gliding under full sail. 



CORRECTIONS IN ORTHOGRAPHY. 



199 



" One may see how the world goes with half an eye." One may see, 
with half an eye, how the world goes. 

" A great stone, that I happened to find, after a long search, by the sea 
shore, served me for an anchor." This arrangement of the members and 
circumstances of this sentence, confines the speaker's search to the sea shore ; 
whereas, he meant, " A targe stone, which, after a long search, I happened 
to find by the sea shore, served me for an anchor." 

" I shall only notice those called personal pronouns." I shall notice only 
those called personal pronouns. 

10. Tautology. — Avoid words which add nothing to the sense ; such as, 
"Noio extant, free gratis, slow mope, cold snow, a hot sun, a flowing stream, 
a dull Wockhead, wise sages." " I am just going to go there ;" I am about 
to go. 

11. Absurdities and Improprieties. — " I can learn him many things." 
It ought to be, " I can teach him." To learn, is to acquire or receive informa- 
tion ; to teach, means to communicate it. 

" I don't think it is so." You do think, that it is not so. 

'Ever, always. " I have ever been of this mind." I have always been. 
Ever and always are not synonymous. Ever refers to one indefinite period 
©f time ; as, " If he ever become rich :" always means at all times. 

Excuse, pardon. The former signifies to release from an obligation which 
refers to the future ; the latter, to forgive a neglect or crime that is past. 
•* Excuse me for neglecting to call yesterday :" pardon me. 

Remember, recollect. We remember a thing which we retain in our mind ; 
we recollect it, when, though having gone from the mind, we have power to 
call it back. 

Defect, deficiency. A thing which is incomplete in any of its parts, is de* 
ftctive; a total absence of the thing, is a deficiency. 

This subject will be resumed in the appendix to this work. 



CORRECTIONS IN ORTHOGRAPHY. 

From among those words which are often erroneously spelled, the follow* 
ingare selected and corrected according to Johnson, and to Cobb's Walker. 



Incorrect. 

Abscision 

achievment 

adze 

agriculturalist 

almanac 

ancle 

baise 

bason 

bass 

bombazin 

boose 

boult 

buccaneer 

burthen 

bye 

calimanco 



Correct. 

Abscission 

achievement 

addice 

agriculturist 

almanack 

ankle 

baize 

basin 

base 

bombasin 

bouse 

bolt 

bucanier 

burden 

calamanco 



Incorrect. 

camblet 

camphor 

canvas 

carcase 

centinel 

chace 

chalibeate 

chamelion 

chemist 

chemistry 

cholic 

chuse 

cimetar 

clench 

cloke 

cobler 



Correct. 

camlet 

camphire 

canvass 

carcass 

sentinel 

chase 

chalybeate 

chameleon 

chymist 

chymistry 

colick 

choose 

cimeter 

clinch 

cloak 

cobbler 



200 



CORRECTIONS IN ORTHOGRAPHY. 



Incorrect. 


Correct. . 


Incorrect. 


Correct. 


chimnies 


chimneys 


malcontent 


malecontent 


chesnut 


chestnut 


maneuver 


manoeuvre 


clue 


clew 


merchandize 


merchandise 


connection 


connexion 


misprison 


misprision 


corset 


corslet 


monies 


moneys 


cypher 


cipher 


negociate 


negotiate 


dactyl 


daetyle 


negociation 


negotiation 


diocese 


diocess 


noviciate 


novitiate 


dipthong 


diphthong 


ouse 


ooze 


dispatch 


despatch 


opake 


opaque 


doat 


dote 


paroxism 


paroxysm* 


draft 


draught 


partizan 


partisan 


drouth 


drought 


patronize 


patronise 


dye 


die 


phrenzy 


phrensy 


dyer 


dier 


pinchers 


pincers 


embitter 


imbitter 


plow 


plough 


embody 


imbody 


poney 


pony 


enquire 


inquire 


potatoe 


potato 


enquirer 


inquirer 


pumpkin 


pumpion 


enquiry 


inquiry 


quere 


query 


ensnare 


insnare 


recognise 
reindeer 


recognize 


enterprize 


enterprise 


raindeer 


enthral 


inthral 


reinforce 


re- enforce 


entrench 


intrench 


restive 


restiff 


entrust 


intrust 


ribbon 


riband 


enwrap 


inwrap 


rince 


rinse 


epaulette 


epaulet 


sadler 


saddler 


etherial 


ethereal 


sallad 


salad 


faggot 


fagot 


sceptic 


skeptiek 


fasset 


faucet 


scepticism 


skepticism 


fellon 


felon 


segar 


cigar 


fie 


fy 


seignor 


seignior 


germ 


germe 


serjeant 


sergeant 


goslin 


gosling 


shoar 


shore 


gimblet 


gimlet 


soothe 


sooth 


grey 
halloe 


gray 


staunch 


stanch 


halloo 


streight 


straight 


hansel 


handsel 


subtract 


substract 


highth 


height 


suitor 


suiter 


hindrance 


hinderance 


sythe 


scythe 


impale 


empale 


tatler 


tattler 


inclose 


enclose 


thresh 


thrash 


inclosure 


enclosure 


thwak 


thwack 


indict 


endict 


tipler 


tippler 


indictment 


endictment 


tranquility 


tranquillity 


indorse 


endorse 


tripthong 


triphthong 


indorsement 


endorsement 


trissyllable 


trisyllable 


instructor 


instruct er 


valice 


valise 


insure 


ensure > 


vallies 


valleys 


insurance 


ensurance 


vise 


vice 


laquey 


lackey 


waggon 


wagon 


laste 


last 


warrantee 


warranty 


licence 


license 


whoopingcough 


hoopingcough 


loth 


loath 


woe 


wo 


lye 


lie 


yeast 


yest 



CORRECTIONS IN ORTHOEPY. 



201 



CORRECTIONS IN ORTHOEPY. 

The following words being often erroneously pronounced by polite people, 
as well as by the vulgar, their correction, in this place, agreeably to Cobb's 
Walker, it is presumed, will be useful to many. Some of the mispronuncia- 
tions given are provincial. 

Fate, fir, fill, fat,— me, m3t,— pine, pfa— no, m5ve, n5r, not— tube, tub, 
bill— oil— found— thin— this. 



Orthogra- Improper. Pronoun- 



4 PHY. 

Again 

Ally 

Are 

Azure 

Bade 

Beard 

Been 

Bleat 

Boil 

Bonnet 

Brooch 

Camphire 

Canal 

Catch 

Causeway 

Chalice 

Chasten 

Chimney 

Chine 

Choir 

Clevy 

Clinch 

Column 

Combat 

Comma 

Coquet 

Corps 

Corpse 

Cover 

Deaf 

Decisive 

Depot 

Depute 

Design 

Dint 

Docile 

*Disgust 

Dismay", 

Disown 

Dost 

Doth 

Does 

Drain 

Drought 

Drowned 

Ductile 



a-gane> 
il'le 



CED. 

a-geV 

n-ii' 



are ar 

azh'ur a'zhiire 

bade bad 

bard beerd 
bin or be&n bin 

Waif bleet 

bile boll 

bun'ngt hftn'n?t 

br6tsh br33tsh 

kam'flre kam'fh- 

ka-nawl' ka-nal' 

kitsh katsh 

kros'wa- kawz'wi 

kails tsh&Ms 

tshas'sn tshase'sn 

tshWble tshim'ne 

tshlme tshlns 

koir kwlre 

kleV?s kleVve 

kl&nsh klhish 

kol'yum kol'lSm 

k&m'bat kum'bat 

kSm'me k<Wm& 

ko-kweV ko-kgtf 

kSrps k6re 
korps 

kVur kuv'ur 

deef d8f 

de-sis'fv de-sl'sfv 

de'p&t de-p6' 

der/u-tlze de-pute' 

de-zlne 7 de-sine' 

d3nt dint 

di'slle dos'sh 1 

d?s-gust' diz-gust' 

dis-ma' diz-ma' 

dis-one' diz-one 7 

dost dust 

doth duM 

d53z duz 

dreen drane 

drouth dr8ut 

drftftnd'ld dround 

duk'tile duk'tll 



Orthogra- Improper. Pronoun- 



phy. 
Edge 
Either 
English 
Era 
Ere 

Fasten 

Fearful 

Figure 

Fiend 

First 

Foliage 

Fortune 

Fortnight 

Fountain 

Fracture 

Fragrance 

Futile 

Gather 

Get 

Girth 

Goal 

Going 

Gold 

Gum 

Grudge 

Gypsum 

Has 

Have 

Heard 

Hearth 

Hiss 

Hoist 

Homely 

Hoof 

Hostler 

Humble 

Jesting 

Kettle 

Lecture 

Leisure 

Lever 

Lid 

Lilach 

Loam 

Loo 

Maintain 



CED. 

aje Idje 

1'THur e'THur 

gng'llsh Ing'glfsh 
e're e'ra 

ere are 

fis'tn fas'sn 

feVfo.1 feerful 

fig'gur figure 
fend felnd 

fust furst 

fftil'aje fo'le-aje 
for'tshun for'tshune 
fort'nit fort'nlte 
-foftn'tn f&un'tin 
frak'tshur frak'tshure 
frag'ranse fra'granse 
futile fu'tH 

g^TH r ur gaTH'ur 

git g8t 

gurt girth 

g33l gole 
gone or go- gi'ing 
g33ld [In gild 

g33m gum 

be-greHslv' grudje 

gfp'sum jip'sum 

hez haz 

have hav 

heerd hgrd 
hur*/t or h&thh&rth 

s?ss hiss 

hlste hoist 

hum'ble homCle 

huf h33f 

haws'lur Ss'lur 

hum'bl um'bl 

jeest'?n je'st'fag 

kit'tl keU'tl 

lgk'tshur leVtshure 

Igzh'ur le'zhure 

leVur le'vur 

m m 

la'lok ll'lak 

133m lome 

lu 133 

mane-tane' mln-tane* 



202 



CORRECTIONS IN ORTHOEPY. 



Orthogra- Improper. Pronoun- 



pht 
Mermaid 
Mountain 
Nature 
Neither 
Oblige 
Oblique 
Of 
Oil 
Only 
Panther 
Parent 
Partner 
Pasture 
Patron 
Pincers 
Pith 
Plait 
Poem 
Point 
Pother 
Precept 
Preface 
Prelude 
Process 
Product 
Progress 
Profile 
Pumpion 
Put 
Quoit 
Raisin 
Rapine 
Rear 
Reptile 
Rid 
Rind 
Rinse 
Rosin 
Routine 



mare'made 

mSun'tn 

na'tshtir 

nl'THur 

6-bleeje' 

o-bleek' 

6f 

lie 

ftn'le or un'le 

pane'tur 

parent - 

pard'nur 

pas'tshfir 

pit'run 

pmsh'&rz 

ylth 

pleet 

pome 

plnte 

bdTH'ur 

preVs^pt 

pre'fase 

pre'lAde 

pro'sls 

pro'dukt 

pro'grls 

pro'flle 

pungk'fn 

p&t (verb) 

kwate 

ra'zn 

ra'plne 

rare 

reVtlle 

red 

rlne 

rinse 

r&z'um 

rou'Une 



Orthography. 

Ague and fever 

Alternate 

Annunciate 

Andiron 

Antipodes 

Apparent 

Architecture 

Assumption 

Auxiliary^ 

Certiorari 

Christianity 

Clandestine 

Coadjutor 

Compendium 

Connoisseur 



CED. PUT. 

meVmade 

mSSn'tin 

na'tshure 

ne'THur 

6-bllje' 

Sb-llke' 

6v 

oil 

one'le 

pan'J/mr 

pa'rlnt 

part'niir 

pas'tshure 

pa'trun 

pln'surz 

tfith 

plate 

p&'Sm 

point 

puTH'ur 

pre'sSpt 

prgffas 

pr&l'ude 

pros'sls 

prSd'ukt 

prftg'rls 

£:6-feel' 

pump / yun 

put 

kwolt 

re'zn 

rap'in 

reer 

rgp'tll 

rid 

rind 

rinse 

raz'in 

ro3-teen' 

Improper. 

fe'vtirn-a'g&r 

awLteVnate 

an-nun'shate 

hand'l-ftrn 

an'te-podz 

ap-par^nt 

artsh'e-tgk-tshur 

as-s&mp'shun 

awks-M-re 

sash-ur-ar'ur 

kr!s-tshan'e-te 

klan-dSs'tlnc 

ko-ad'j&-tSr 

kom-peVde-um 

k&n-nis-sare' 



Orthogra- Improper. Pronoun 



Roof 

Sacred 

Said 

Sat 

Says 

Scarce 

Schedule 

Shut 

Since 

Sit 

Sleek 

Sliver 

Slothful 

Soot 

Spikenard 

Spoil 

Steelyard 

Stamp 

Stint 

Sword 

Synod 

Therefore 

Thill 

To 

Tour 

Treble 

Towards 

Trophy 

Tuesday 

Verdure 

Vizier 

Volume 

Were 

Yea 

Yes 

Yest 

Yet 

You 

Youth 



ruff 

sak'rSd 

side 

se"t 

size 

skarse 

skid'ule 

shSt 

s£nse 

se"t 

sl'ik 

sliv'vur 

slawWful 

sut 

spig'nut 

spile 

stil'yurdz 

st6mp 

stint 

sword 

sl'nod 

THare'fore 

fll 

to 

tSSr 

tribal 

to-wardz' 

tr&f'fe 

tshuz'de 

vurfur 

vl'zfmr 

voi'lum 

ware 

ygs 

yeest or eest 

yhth 



CED. 

roof 

sa'krSd 

sM 

sat 

sgz 

skarse 

sld'j&le 

shut 

sinse 

s!t 

sleek 

ell'vur 

sl6*fc'f&l 

so3t 

splke'nar 

spoil 

steel'yard 

stamp 

st?n* 

s6rd 

sin'&l 

THeVf6re 

thll 

toS 

t83r 

treVbl 

to'urdz 

tr6'fe 

tuze'd£ 

veVj&re 

vfz'yeer 

vftl'y&me 

wSr 

ye 

y?s 

ylst 

y£f 

y55 

yttth 



Pronounced. 

a'gi and fe'vur 

al-teVnate 

an-n^n'she-ate 

and'l-urn 

ln-t?p'6-deez 

ap-pa're*nt 

ar'-ke-tik-tshur© 

as-stim'shun 

awg-zll'ya-re 

sSr-she-o-ra'rl 

krfs-tshe4n'e-te 

klan-deVtm 

k6-ad-iu'tur 

kftm-pen'je-um 

k6*n2s-aare/ 



CORRECTIONS IN ORTHOEPY. 



203 



Orthography. 

Cowrteous 

Coverlet 

Cowardice 

Decrepit 

Demonstrate 

Desideratum 

Diamond 

Discrepance 

Disfranchise 

Dishonest 

Disorder 

Electrify 

Emaciate 

Expiatory 

Extempore 

Extraordinary 

Feminine 

Frequently 

Genuine 

Guardian 

Gymnastick 

Hallelujah 

Hospital 

Humorous 

Idea 

Ignoramus 

Indecorous 

Irradiate 

Literati 

Maintenance 

Masculine 

Mercantile 

Meliorate 

Museum 

National 

Nomenclature 

Nominative 

Obedience 

Obstreperous 

Octavo 

Oratory 

Parentage 

Partiality 

Patronage 

Patriarch 

Patriot 

Patriotism 

Philologist 

Philosophy 

Philosophical 

Plagiarism 

Possess 

Possessive 

Possession 

PrcY«ntiv§ 



Incorrect. 

kire'te-Ss 

kuv'ui-lid 

ko&'urd-ise 

de-krfp'ld 

deWon-strate 

de-sld-gr-at'um 

dl'mund 

dfs-kreV&n-se 

dls-fran'tshlze 

d?s-on'2st 

d?s-or'dfir 

e-lgk'tur-lze 

e-ma'shate 

gks-pl'a-to-re 

Sks-tim'pore 

Sks-tr&-6Vde-nl-r& 

feWe-nlne 

Mk'wgnt-le 

jeVu-lne 

gar-deen' 

g'im-naVt?k 

hal-le-hVja 

hos'p?t-aT 

hu'mur-us 

1-de' . 

?g-no-ram'us 

fn-dgk'o-rus 

fr-r^d'e-ate 

m4r-at'l 

mane-tane'anse 

mas'ku-llne 

mur'kan-tlle 

mur-kan-teel' 

mSr-kari'dl 

me-ll'o-rate 

mu'ze-um 

na'shun-al 

no-m&n'kla-ture 

n6:7i / e-tiv 

o-b^de-lnse 

8b-str6p'pu-lus 

ok-tl'vo 

&r'a-t6-re 

pa'r&nt-aje 

par-shal'le-te 

pa'trun-aje 

pat're-lrk 

p&t're-ut 

pSt're-at-fzm 

fl-lcl'lo-j?st 

fl-los'6-fe 

fl-lo-sof%-ai 

pla'ga-rfzm 

p5s-seV 

pos-seVs?v 

pfts-slsh'un 

Pre-vint'a-tfv 



I 



Pronounced. 

kurtshe-us 

kuv'&r-lgt 

koa'drd-^s 

de-kreyit 

de-m$;/strate 

de-sld-e-ra'tum 

dl'a-mund 

dis'kre-panse 

d?s-fran'tshlz 

dlz-on'ist 

d?z-or'dur 

e-Igk'tre-fl 

e-ma'she-ate 

3ks'pe-a-tur-r& 

e'ks-teWpo-re 

gks-tror'de-na-re 

feWe-nm 

fre'kwe'nt-le 

jln'u-m 
gyar'de^&n 

j!m-nas'tik 

hal-le-lo&'ya 1 

Ss'pe-tai 

ya'mur-us 

1-de'a 

Ig-no-ra'mus 

?n-de-ko'rus 

?r-ra'de-ate 

nt-gr-a'tl 

m&n'te-nanse 

mas'ku-lm 

meVkan-tfl 

xnMe-o-rate 

mti-ze'um 

nash'un-al 

nom-Sn-kla'tshure 

nom'e-na-tfv 

o-be / je-&nse 

ob-streV&r-iis 

ok-ta'vo 

or'a-tur-re 

parent- aje 

pjir-she-al'le-te 

pat'r&n-?je 

pa'tre-ark 

pa'tre-ut 

pa'trerut-Izm 

fe-lol'lo-j?st 

fe-l6s'o-fe 

ni-o-zoP-e-kal 

pla'ja-r?zm 

p&z-zls- 

p6z-zeVs?v 

pftz-zSsh'un 

pre-vlntffv 



204 



CORRECTIONS IN ORTHOEPY. 



Orthography. 

Pronunciation 

Propitiation 

Prophecy 

Prophesy 

Radiance 

Ratio 

Rational 

Sacrament 

Sacrifice 

Stereotype 

Stupendous 

Synonyme 

Synonyma 

Transparent 

Transparency 

Verbatim 

Volcano 

Whiffletree 



Incorrect. 

pro-nun-se-a'shun 

pri-pis-e-a'shun 

pr6v'e-sl (noun) 

pr6v'e-sl (verb) 

rad'e-anse 

ra'sho 

ra'shun-ll 

sa'kra-m&nt 

sa'kre-flzeo»-({is) 

steVo-tlpe 

stu-pSn'du-us ) 

stu-pgn'j&s ) 

se-n&n'e-mi 

se-non'e-miz 

trans-parent 

trans-pir'e'n-se 

v&r-bat'fm 

vol-ki'no 

hwfp'pl-tree 



Pronounced. 

pro-nan-she-a'shtin 

pro-plsh-e-a'shtin 

prof' e-se (noun) 

pr6f'e-sl (verb) 

ra'de-anse 

ra'she-o 

rash'un-ai 

sak'ra-m§nt 

sik'ra-fize 

ste're-o-tlpe 

stu-pgn'dus 

s?n'o-n?m 

se-non'e-ma 

trans-pa'rSnt 

trans-pa'rSn-se 

vir-ba ; tim 

v6l-ka'no 

hwlf'fl-tree 



Note. 1. — When the words learned, blessed, loved, fyc. are used as partici- 
pial adjectives, the termination ed should generally be pronounced as a sepa- 
rate syllable; as, "A learn-ed man; The bless-ed Redeemer;" but when 
they a»e employed as verbs, the ed is contracted in pronunciation ; as, " He 
learn' d his lesson ; They are IwPd ; I have w^aWd." 

2. The accent of the following words falls on those syllables expressed in 
the it alick characters : Eu ro pe an, hy me ne al, Ce sa re a, co ad ju tor, ep i cu- 
re an, in ter est ed, in ter est ing, rep ar a ble, rec og nise, leg is la ture, ob li- 
ga to ry, in com par a ble, ir rep a ra ble, in ex o ra ble. In a large class of 
words, the vowels a, e, and ai, should be pronounced like long a in late ; such 
as, fare, rare, there, their, where, air, chair, compare, declare, &c. In the words 
person, perfect, mercy, interpret, determine, and the like, the vowel e before r, 
is often erroneously sounded like short w. Its proper sound is that of c in 
met, pet, imperative. 

3. With respect to the pronunciation of the words sky, kind, guide, &e. il 
appears that a mistake extensively prevails. It is believed that their com- 
mon pronunciation by the vulgar, is the correct one, and agreeable to the pro- 
nunciation intended by Mr. John Walker. The proper diphthongal sounds 
in skel, kylnd, gylde, are adopted by the common mass, and perverted 
by those who, in their unnatural and affected pronunciation of these 
words, say, ske-1, ke-lnde, ge-lde. This latter mode of pronouncing them 
in two syllables, is as incorrect and ridiculous as to pronounce the words 
boil, toil, m two syllables; thus, bo-il, t&-ll. 

4. My, wind, pour. When my is contrasted with thy, his, her, your, &c. it 
is pronounced, ml : in all other situations, it is pronounced, me ; as, " My [me] 
son, give ear to my [me] counsel." When wind ends a line in poetry, and is 
made to rhyme with mind, bind, kind, &c. it is pronounced, wind ;but, in 
other situations, it is pronounced, wind. 

" Lo, the poor Indian ! whose untutored mind 
" Sees God in clouds, or hears him in the wind." 
Pour. Analogically, the diphthong ou, in this word, has its proper sound; as 
in hSur, sS&r. 

" Ye heavens ! from high the dewy nectar pour, 
" And in soft silence shed the kindly shower. 



PROVINCIALISMS, 



205 



PROVINCIALISMS. 



CONTRACTIONS, VULGARISMS, AND OTHER IMPROPRIETIES. 

As each of the following provincialisms and vulgarisms, has its locality in 
some one section or other of our country, it is hoped that these corrections 
will be found useful in the districts to which the various phrases respectively 
belong. 



IMPROPER. CORRECT, 

Aint Are not 

haint have not 

taint 'lis not 

baint are not 

maint may not 

wont will not 

wer'nt were not 

waunt was not 

woodent would not 

mussent must not 

izzent is not 

wazzent was not 

hezzent has not 

doozzent does not 

tizzent 'tis not 

whool who will 

don't 

can't 

i'U 

'tis 

Common in New-England or 
New-York, 

askt 

bin 

hwoie 

home 

stone 

duz 

glass 

mass 

brass 

pass 

flant 

hlz 

h5uz'?z 

ane'ths&nt 

ane'j£l 

dane/jSr 

strane'jur 



Akst 

bSn 

hul 

hum 

stun 

dooz 

glass 

mass 

brass 

pass 

flawnt 

hiz'zn 

ho&'zn 

an'shint 

an'jSl 

dan'jiir 

stran'j&r 

tsham'bur 

na'tur 

nat'&r-Sl 

fortm 

fortew-nate 



tshame'bur 

na'thshure 

natsh'u-ral 

for'tshune 

fSrtshu-nate 



IMPROPER. CORRECT. 

vur'tew veVtshu 

vurtew-us veVtshu-u9 

ak'tew-^i ik'tsu-al 

&d'ew-kate Sd'ju-kate 

faTH'ur fl'THur 

heft weight 

stoop porch 

stent task 

helve handle 

muss disorder 

dump unload 

scup swing 

chaise gig or chaise 

cutter one-horse sleigh 

staddle sapling 

foxy reddish 

suple spry or supple 

In Pennsylvania. 

Strenth strength 

lenth length 

brenth breadth 

ort ought 

nan what 

wisht wish 

wunst once 

ouch oh 

cheer chair 

spook ghost 

furnentz opposite 



wanity 
in wain 
ornary 
for by \ 
we bit 
disremember 

Door 
floSr 
6nd 
l&ss 
kSorse 
soorse 
till 
put 
18 



vanity 
in vain 
ordinary 
to spare 
small piece 
do not remember 
Irish. 
dire 
Aire 
and 
looz 
korse 
sorse 
too 
put 



206 



PROVINCIALISMS. 



Improper. 


Correct. 


Improper. 


fat 


fSt 


mSut 


a-k8ont' 


ak-kount' 


gwlne 


pSi^t 


HvpU 


sh^t or shut 


pare'sun 


par'sn 


tote or fotch 


Md. Va. Ky. Miss.&c. 




THar" 


THare 


hop'd 
ca-ho3t' 


whar 


hware 


bar [bear] 


bare 


mar'bl 


war 


wir j 





Correct. 

mite [might] 

g6 ?ng 

rid 

kar-re, fltsh, or 

bring 

h&pt 

part'nur-shlp 

moov off 



Note. CZcrer, prc%, ugly, curious, expect, guess, and reckon, though cor- 
rect English words, have, among the common people of New-England and 
New- York, a provincial application and meaning. With them, a clever man, 
is one of a gentle and obliging disposition • instead of, a man of distinguish- 
ed talents and profound acquirements. Pretty and ugly, they apply to the 
disposition of a person, instead of, to his external appearance. In these states, 
one will often hear, "I guess it rains," when the speaker knows this to be a 
fact, and, therefore, guessing is uncalled for. " I expect I can go ;" or, " I 
reckon I can ;" instead of, " I suppose or presume." In New-England, a 
clergyman is often called a minister, in New- York, a priest, and south of 
N. Y. & parson. The last is preferable. 



NEW-ENGLAND OR NEW-YORK. 

I be goin. He lives to hum. 
Hese ben to hum this two weeks. 
You haddent ought to do it. Yes 
I had ought. 

Taint no better than hizzen. 
Izzent that are line writ well ? 
Tizzent no better than this ere. 

The keows be gone to hum, neow, 
and I'mer goin arter um. 

He'll be here, derights, and bring 
yourn and thairn. 

He touch'd the stun which I shew 
him, an di guess it made him sithe, for 
'twas cissing hot. 

Run, Thanel, and cut a staddle, for 
to make a lever on. Ize jest agoneter 
go, daddy. 

Where shell I dump my cart, square ? 
Dump it vender. Whats the heft of 
your load ? 

When ju git hum from HafTord ? 
A fortnit ago. You diddent, did ye ? 
Ju see my Danel, whose sot up a 
tarvern there ? No. Hede gone afore 
I got there. O, the pesky criter ! Hele 
soon be up a stump. 

My frinds supurb mansion is de- 
lightfully sitewated on a nate-eral 
mound of considerable hithe. It hez 
a long stoop in front ; but it is furder 
from the city than I'de like my hum. 

I know'd the gal was drownded, 
and I tell'dthe inquisitioners, that ize 



CORRECTED. 

I am going. He lives at home. 

He has been at home these 2 weeks. 

You ought not to do it. Certainly I 
ought. 

' Tis no better than his. 

Is not that line well icritten ? 

It is no better, or, it is not any bet- 
ter than this. 

The cows are gone home, and I am 
going after them. 

He ivillbe here, directly, and bring 
yours and theirs. 

He touched the stone which I showed 
hiin, and it made him sigh, for it was 
hissing hot. 

Go, Nathaniel, and cut a sapling, to 
make a lever of. I ivas about to go, 
or, intending to go immediately, father. 

Where shall I unload my cart ? Yon- 
der. What is the weight of your load ? 

When did you return from Hartford 7 
A fortnight ago. Is it possible ! Did 
you see my son Daniel, who has opened 
a publick house there ? No. He had left 
before I arrived there. O, the paltry 
fellow ! He will soon come to nought. 

My friend's superb mansion is de- 
lightfully situated on a natural mound 
of considerable height. It has a long 
porch in front ; but it is farther from the 
city than J would like to reside. 

I knew the girl had been drowned, 
and I told the jury of inquest, that Iwa$ 



PROVINCIALISMS. 



207 



NEW-ENGLAND. 

nither geestin nor jokin about it ; but 
if they'd permit me to giv em my 
ideze, they'd obleege me. So I par- 
severed, and carried my pinte. You 
don't say so. Be you from Barkshire ? 
I be. Neow I swan ! if I aint clean 
beat. 

You baint from the Jarseys, be ye ? 
Yes. Gosh ! then I guess you kneow 
heow to tend tarvern. 

IN PENNSYLVANIA. 

I seen him. Have you saw him ? 
Yes, I have saw him wunst j and that 
was before you seed him. 

I done my task. Have you did 
yours ? No, but I be to do it. 

I be to be there. He know'd me. 

Leave me'ba, for Ime afear'd. 
I never took notice to it. 

I wish I haddent did it ; howsum- 
ever, I dont keer : they cant skeer 
me. 

Give me them there books. 

He ort to go ; so he ort. 

No he orten. 

Dont scrouge me. 

I diddent go to do it. 

Aint that a good hand write ? 

Nan ? I know'd what he meant, but 
I never let on. 

It is a long mile to town. Ah ! I 
thought 'twas unle a short mile. 
Irish. 

Not here the day; he went till 
Pittsburgh. 

Let us be after pairsing a wee bit. 

Where did you loss it ? 

Md. Va. Kt> or Miss. 

Carry the horse to water. 

Tote the wood to the river. 
Have you focht the water ? 

I>e made 200 bushels of corn this 
year. 

He has run aginst a snag. 

Is that vour plunder, stranger? 

He will soon come of that habit. 

I warthar, and I seen his boat was? 
*oadend too heavy. 
Whar you gwine ? 
Hese in cohoot with me. 
Did you get shet of your tobacca ? 

Who hoped you to sell it ? 



CORRECTED. 

not jesting about it ; but, by permitting 
me to give them my view of the subject, 
they would oblige me. So, I persever- 
ed, and gained my -point. Indeed ! Are 
you from Berkshire ? I am. Really I I 
am surprised. 

Are you from Neiv- Jersey ? Yes. 
Then I presume you know how to tend a 
tavern. 

CORRECTED. 

I saw him. Have you seen him ? 
Yes, once ; and that was before you 
saw him. 

I have done my task. Have you 
done yours ? No, but I must. 

I shall be there ; or, I must be there. 
He knew me. 

Let me be, for I am afraid. 

I never took notice of it : or, better 
thus, I never noticed it. 

I wish I had not done it : however, I 
disregard them. They cannot scare 
me. 

Give me those books. 

He ought to go, really. 

He ought not. 

Don't crowd me. 

I did not intend to do it. 

Is not that beautiful writing 

What ? I knew what he meant, but 
I kept that to myself. 

It is a little over a mile to town. Ah J 
I supposed it to be less than a mile. 

CORRECTED. 

He is not here fo-day. He went to 
Pittsburgh. 

Let us parse a little. 
Where did you lose it ? 

CORRECTED. 

Lead the horse to water; or, water 
the horse. 

Carry the wood to the river. 

Have you fetched, or brought, the 
water ? 

I have raised 200 bushels of corn 
this year. 

He has got into difficulty. 

Is that your baggage, sir ? 

He will soon overcome, or get rid qf 9 
that habit. 

I was there, and I saw that his boat 
was too heavily laden, or loaded. 

Where are you going ? 

He is in partnership with me. 

Did you get rid, or dispose of, four 
tobacco ? 

Who helped you to sell it? 



208 rnoaonr* 

PROSODY. 

Prosody treats of the modulations of the voue 
according to the usages of the language we speak, 
and the sentiments we wish to express : hence, 
in its most extensive sense, it comprises all <3ie 
laws of elocution. 

Prosody is commonly divided into two parts : 
the first teaches the true pronunciation of words, 
comprising accent, quantity, emphasis, pause, and 
tone i and the second, the laws of versification. 

Accent. Accent is the laying of a peculiar stress of the voice 
on a particular letter or syllable in a word, that it may be better 
heard than the rest, or distinguished from them : as, in the word 
presume^ the stress of the voice must be on the letter u, and 
the second syllable, sume> which syllable takes the accent, 
r Every word of more syllables than one, has one accented 
syllable. For the sake of euphony or distinctness in a long 
word, we frequently give a secondary accent to another sylla- 
ble besides the one which takes the principal accent ; as, ^tes ti 
mo' ni^aly a ban' don ^ing. 

Quantity. The quantity of a syllable is that time which is 
occupied in pronouncing it. It is considered as long or short. 

A vowel or syllable is long, when the accent is on the vowel ; 
which causes it to be slowly joined in pronunciation with the 
following letters ; as, " Fall, bale, mood, house, feature." 

A syllable is short, when the accent is on the consonant ; 
which causes the vowel to be quickly joined to the succeeding 
letter ; as, " ant, bonnet, hunger." 

A long syllable generally requires double the time of a short 
one in pronouncing it ; thus, " mate" and " note" should be 
pronounced as slowly again as " mat" and " not." 

Emphasis. By emphasis is meant a stronger and fuller sound 
of the voice, by which we distinguish some word or words on 
which we design to lay particular stress, and to show how they 
affect the rest of the sentence. Sometimes the emphatick words 
must be distinguished by a. particular tone of voice, as well as 
by a greater stress. 

Emphasis will be more fully explained under the head of Elocution. 

Pauses. Pauses or rests, in speaking and reading, are a total 
cessation of the voice during a perceptible, and, in many cases, 
a measurable space of time. 
Tones. Tones are different both from emphasis and pauses; con- 



PUNCTUATION. 209 

sisting in the modulations of the voice, or the notes or variations 

of sound which we employ in the expression of our sentiments. 

Emphasis affects particular words and phrases ; but tones 

affect sentences, paragraphs, and sometimes a whole discourse. 



PUXCTITATIOX. 

Punctuation is the art of dividing written com- 
position into sentences or parts of sentences, by 
points or stops, in order to mark the different 
pauses which the sense and an accurate pronun- 
ciation require. 

The Comma represents the shortest pause ; the Semicolon, a 
pause double that of the comma ; the Cohn, double that of the 
semicolon ; and the Period, double that of the colon. 

Punctuation is a modern art. The ancients were entirely unacquainted 
with the use of points ; and wrote, not only without any distinction of mem- 
bers and periods, but also without any distinction of words. This custom 
continued till the year 360 before Christ. How the ancients read their 
works, written in this manner, it is not easy to conceive. After the practice 
of joining words together had ceased, notes of distinction were placed at 
the end of every word. This practice continued a considerable time. 

As it appears that the, present usage of points did not take place whilst 
manuscripts and monumental inscriptions were the only known methods of 
conveying knowledge, we must conclude, that it was introduced with the 
art of printing. The introduction was, however, gradual : all the points 
did not appear at once. The colon, semicolon, and note of admiration, were 
Droduced some time after the others. The whole set, as they are now used, 
became established, when learning and refinement had made considerable 
progress. 

As the rules of punctuation are founded altogether on the 
grammatical construction of sentences, their application pre- 
supposes, on the part of the student, a knowledge of Syntax. 
Although they admit of exceptions, and require a continual ex- 
ercise of judgment and literary taste in applying them properly, 
they are of great utility, and justly merit our particular attention. 

The great importance of acquiring a thorough knowledge of 
punctuation, and of attending strictly to the application of its 
rules, is established by the single fact, that the meaning of a sen- 
tence is often totally perverted by the omission or misapplication 
of points. To illustrate the correctness of this remark, numer- 
ous examples might be selected. The following border on the 
ridiculous : (Olr. Jared Hurton having gone to sea his wife, 
desires the prayers of this church ;" " Tryon, who escaped 

18* 



210 PUNCTUATION 

from the jail on Friday last, is 22 years of age, has sandy hair, 
light eyes, thin visage, with a short nose turned up about six feet 
high, &c." Corrected ; " Mr. Jared Hurton having gone to sea, 
his wife desires the prayers o f this church ;" " thin visage, with 
a short nose turned up, about six feet high, &c." 

Before one enters upon the study of punctuation, it is neces- 
sary for him to understand what is meant by an adjunct, a sim- 
ple sentence, and a compound sentence. 

An adjunct or imperfect phrase contains no assertion, or does 
not amount to a proposition or sentence; as, "Therefore;" 
" studious of praise ;" " in the pursuit of commerce." — For the 
definition of a sentence, and a compound sentence, turn to 
page 119. 

When two or more adjuncts are connected with the verb in 
the same manner, and by the same preposition or conjunction, 
the sentence is compound, and may be resolved into as many 
simple ones as there are adjuncts ; " as, " They have sacrificed 
their health and fortune, at the shrine of vanity, pride, and extra- 
vagance." But when the adjuncts are connected with the verb 
in a different manner, the sentence is simple ; as, " Grass of an 
excellent quality, is produced in great abundance in the northern 
regions of our country." 

COMMA. 

RULE 1. The memoers of a simple sentence should not, in 
general, be separated by a comma ; as, " Every part of matter 
swarms with living creatures." 

Exercises in Punctuation. — Idleness is the great fomenter of all corrup- 
tions in the human heart. The friend of order has made half his way to 
virtue. All finery is a sign of littleness. 

RULE 2. When a simple sentence is long, and the nomina- 
tive is accompanied with- an inseparable adjunct of importance, 
it may admit a comma immediately before the verb ; as, " The 
good taste of the present age, has not allowed us to neglect 
the cultivation of the English language ;" " Too many of the 
pretended friendships of youth, are mere combinations in 
pleasure." 

Exercises.— The indulgence of a harsh disposition is the introduction to 
future misery. To be totally indifferent to praise or censure is a real defect 
in character. The intermixture of evil in human society serves to exercise 
the suffering graces and virtues of the good. 

RULE 3. When the connexion of the different parts of a, 
simple sentence, is interrupted by an adjunct of importance, the 
adjunct must be distinguished by a comma before and after it ; 
as, " His work is, in many respects, very imperfect. It is, there* 



PUNCTUATION. 211 

fore, not much approved." But when these interruptions are 

slight and unimportant, it is better to omit the comma ; as, 

" Flattery is certainly pernicious ; M " There is surely a pleasure 

in beneficence." 

Exercises, — Charity like the sun brightens all its objects. Gentleness is 
in truth the great avenue to mutual enjoyment. You too have your failings. 
Humility and knowledge with poor apparel excel pride and ignorance un- 
der costly attire. The best men often experience disappointments. Advice 
should be seasonably administered. No assumed behaviour can always 
hide the real character. 

RULE 4. The nominative case independent, and nouns in 
apposition when accompanied with adjuncts, must be distinguish- 
ed by commas ; as, " My son, give me thy heart ;" " Dear Sir, 
I write to express my gratitude for your many kindnesses ;" " I 
am obliged to you, my friends, for your many favours ;" " Paul, 
the apostle of the G entiles, was eminent for his zeal and know- 
ledge ;" " The butterfly, child of the summer, flutters in the sun." 

But if two nouns in apposition are unattended with adjuncts 
or if they form only a proper name, they should not be separated 
as, " Paid the apostle, suffered martyrdom ;" u The statesmen* 
Jefferson, wrote the declaration of Independence." 

f Exercises.— Lord thou hast been our dwelling place in all generations- 
Continue my dear child to make virtue thy chief study. Canst thou expect 
thou betrayer of innocence to escape the hand of vengeance ? Death the 
king of terrours chose a prime minister. Hope the balm of life sooths ua 
under every misfortune. Confucius the great Chinese philosopher was em 
mently good as well as wise. The patriarch Joseph is an illustrious exaoQ 
jple of true piety. 

RULE 5. The nominative case absolute and the infinitr 
mood absolute with their adjuncts, a participle with words de- 
pending on it, and, generally, any imperfect phrase which may 
be resolved into a simple sentence, must be separated from the 
rest of the sentence by commas ; as, " His father dying, he 
succeeded to the estate ;" " To confess the truth, I was in fault ;" 
" The king, approving the plan, put it in execution ;" " lie, 
having finished his academical course, has returned home, to 
prosecute his professional studies." 

Exercises. — Peace of mind being secured we may smile at misfortune. 
To enjoy present pleasure he sacrificed his future ease and reputation. His 
talents formed for great enterprises could not fail of rendu ing him conspic- 
uous. The path of piety and virtue pursued with s firm and constant 
spirit will assuredly lead to happiness. All mankinc compose one family 
assembled under the eye of one common Father. 

RULE 6. A compound sentence must be resolved into simple 
ones by placing commas between its members ; as, " The 
decay, the waste, and the dissolution <wa plant, may affect our 
spirits, and suggest a train of serious reflections." 



212 PUNCTUATION. 

Three or more nouns, verbs, adjectives, participles, or ad- 
verbs, connected by conjunctions, expressed or understood, 
must be separated by commas ; as, " The husband, M'ife,* and 
children, f suffered extremely ;" "In a letter, we may ad\ise, 
exhort, comfort, request, and discuss ;" " David was a bmve, 
wise, and pious man ;" '.* A man, fearing, serving, and loving his 
Creator, lives for a noble purpose ;" " Success generally de- 
pends on acting prudently, steadily, and vigorously, in what we 
undertake. " 

Two or more nouns, verbs, adjectives, participles, or adverbs, 
occurring in the same construction, with their conjunctions un- 
derstood, must be separated by commas ; as, " Reason, virtue, 
answer one great aim ;" " Virtue supports in adversity, moder- 
ates in prosperity ;" " Plain, honest truth, needs no artificial 
covering ;" " We are fearfully, wonderfully framed." 

Exercises. — We have no reason to complain of the lot of man nor of the 
mutability of the world. Sensuality contaminates the body depresses the 
understanding deadens the moral feelings of the heart and degrades man 
from his rank in creation. 

Self-conceit presumption and obstinacy blast the prospects of many a 
youth. He is alternately supported by his father his uncle and his eider 
brother. The man of virtue and honour will be trusted relied upon and 
esteemed. Conscious guiit renders one mean-spirited timorous and base. 
An upright mind will never be at a loss to discern what is just and true 
lovely honest and of good report. Habits of reading writing and thinking 
are the indispensable qualifications of a good student. The great business 
of life is to be employed in doing justly loving mercy and walking humbly 
with our Creator. To live soberly righteously and piously comprehends the 
whole of our duty. 

In our health life possessions connexions pleasures there are causes ol 



* The correctness and importance of this rule appear to be so obvious, 
as to render it not a little surprising, that any writer, possessing the least 
Jegree of rhetorical taste, should reject it. I am bold to affirm, that it is 
observed by every correct reader and speaker ; and yet, strange as it may 
seem, it is generally violated by those printers who punctuate by the ear, 
and all others who are influenced by their pernicious example ; thus, 
" The head, the heart and the hands, should be constantly and actively 
employed in doing good." Why do they not omit the comma where the 
conjunction is understood ? It would be doing no greater violence to the 
principles of elocution ; thus, " The head the heart and the hands, should 
be, &c." or thus, " The head the heart, and the hands, should be employ- 
ed," &c. Who does not perceive that the latter pause, where the con- 
junction is expressed, is as necessary as the former, where the conjunction 
is understood ? And, since this is the case, what fair objection can be 
made to the following method of punctuation ? " The head, the heart, and 
the hands, should be constantly and actively employed in doing good ;" 
" She is a woman, gentle, sensible, well-educated, and religious." 

t As a considerable pause in pronunciation is necessary between the 
last noun and the verb, a comma should be inserted to denote it : but a3 
no pause is allowable between the last adjective and the noun, or between 
the last adverb and the verb, the comma, in such instances, is properly 
omitted ; thus, " David was a brave, wise, and pious man." 



PUNCTUATION. 213 

decay imperceptibly working. Deliberate slowly execute promptly. An 
idle trifling society is near akin to such as is corrupting. This unhappy 
person had been seriously affectionately admonished but in vain. 

Rule 7. Comparative sentences whose members are short. 
and sentences connected with relative pronouns the meaning ol 
whose antecedents is restricted or limited to a particular sense, 
should not be separated by a comma ; as, " Wisdom is bettei 
than riches ;" " No preacher is so successful as time ;" " He 
accepted what I had rejected ;" " Self-denial is the sacrifice 
which virtue must make ;" " Substract from many modern poets 
all that may be found in Shakspeare, and trash will remain ;" 
" Give it to the man whom you most esteem." In this last ex- 
ample, the assertion is not of " man in general," but of " the 
man whom you most esteem." 

But when the antecedent is used in a general sense, a comma 
is properly inserted before the relative ; as, " JVfan, ivho is born 
of a woman, is of few days and full of trouble ;" " There is no 
charm in the female sex, which can supply the place of virtue." 

This rule is equally applicable to constructions in which the 
relative is understood; as; "Value duly the privileges you 
enjoy ;" that is, " privileges which you enjoy." 

Exercises. — How much better it is to get wisdom than gold ! The friend 
ships of the world can exist no longer than interest cements them. Eat 
what is set before you. They who excite envy will easily incur censure. 
A man who is of a detracting spirit will misconstrue the most innocent 
words that can be put together. Many of the evils which occasion our 
complaints of the world are wholly imaginary. 

The gentle mind is like the smooth stream which reflects ever}' object in 
its just proportion and in its fairest colours. In that unaffected civility which 
springs from a gentle mind there is an incomparable charm. The Lord 
whom I serve is eternal. This is the man we saw yesterday. 

RULE 8. When tw<* words of the same sort, are connected 
by a conjunction expressed, they must not be separated ; as, 
" Libertines call religion, bigotry or superstition ;" " True 
worth is modest and retired ;" " The study of natural history, 
expands and elevates the mind ;" " Some men sin deliberately 
and presumptuously." When words are connected in pairs, the 
pairs only should be separated ; as, " There is a natural dif- 
ference between merit and demerit, virtue and vice, wisdom and 
folly ;" " Whether we eat or drink, labour or sleep, we should 
be temperate." 

But if the parts connected by a conjunction are not short, 
they may be separated by a comma ; as, " Romances may be 
said to be miserable rhapsodies, or dangerous incentives to evil." 

' Exercises.— -Idleness brings forward and nourishes many bad passions. 
True friendship will at all times avoid a rough or careless behaviour. Health 
and peace a moderate fortune and a few friends sum up all the undoubted 



214 PUNCTUATION. 

articles of temporal felicity. Truth is fair and artless simple and sincere 
uniform and consistent. Intemperance destroys the strength of our bodies 
and the vigour of our minds. 

RULE 9. Where the verb of a simple member is understood, 
a comma may, in some instances, be inserted ; as, " From law 
arises security ; from security, curiosity ; from curiosity, know- 
ledge." But in others, it is better to omit the comma ; " No sta- 
tion is so high, no power so great, no character so unblemished, 
as to exempt men from the attacks of rashness, malice, and 
envy." 

Exercises. — As a companion he was severe and satirical ; as a friend cap- 
tious and dangerous. If the spring put forth no blossoms in summer there 
will be no beauty and in autumn no fruit. So if youth be trifled away with- 
out improvement manhood will be contemptible and old age miserable. ^ 

t RULE 10. When a simple member stands as the object of a 
preceding verb, and its verb may be changed into the infinitive 
mood, the comma is generally omitted ; as, " I suppose he is at 
rest ;" changed, " I suppose him to be at rest." 

But when the verb to be is followed by a verb in the infinitive 
mood, which, by transposition, may be made the nominative 
case to it, the verb to be is generally separated from the infini- 
tive by a comma ; as, " The most obvious remedy is, to with- 
draw from all associations with bad men ;" " The first and most 
obvious remedy against the infection, is, to withdraw from all 
associations with bad men." 

Exercises.— They believed he was dead. He did not know that I was the 
man. I knew she was still alive. The greatest misery is to be condemned 
by our own hearts. The greatest misery that we can endure is to be con- 
demned by our own hearts. 

NOTES. 

1. When a conjunction is separated by a phrase or member from the mem- 
Der to which it belongs, such intervening phrase appears to require a com- 
ma at each extremity ; as, "They set out eany, and, before the close of the 
day, arrived at the destined place." This rule, however, is not generally fol- 
lowed by our best writers ; as, "If thou seek the Lord, he will be found of 
thee ; but if thou forsake him, he will cast thee off for ever ;" " But if the parts 
connected are not short, a comma may be inserted." 

2. Several verbs succeeding each other in the infinitive mood, and having 
a common dependance, may be divided by commas ; as, " To relieve the 
indigent, to comfort the afflicted, to protect the innocent, to reward the 
deserving, are humane and noble employments. 

3. A remarkable expression, or a short observation, somewhat in the form 
of a quotation; may be properly marked with a comma ; as, "It hurts a 
man's pride to say, I do not know ;" " Plutarch calls lying, the vice of slaves." 

4. When words are placed in opposition to each other, or with some 
marked variety, they must be distinguished by a comma ; as, 



" Tho' deep, yet clear ; tho' gentle, yet not dull ; 
" Strong, without rage ; without overflowing, full." 



" Good men, in this frail, imperfect state, are often found, not only in union 
with, but in opposition to, the views and conduct of each other," 



PUNCTUATION. 215 

Sometimes, when the word with which the last preposition agrees is sin- 
gle, the comma may be omitted ; as, " Many states were in alliance with, 
and under the protection o/Rome." 

The same rule and restrictions apply, when two or more" nouns refer to 
the same preposition ; as, " He was composed both under the threatening, 
and at the approach, of a. cruel and lingering death j" " He was not only the 
king, but the father o/his people." 

5. The words, " as, thus, nay, so, hence, again, first, secondly, formerly, 
now, lastly, once more, above all, on the contrary, in the next place, in 
short," and all other words and phrases of a similar kind, must generally 
be separated from the context by a comma ; as, " Remember thy best friend ; 
formerly the supporter of thy infancy ; now, the guardian of thy youth ;" 
" He feared want ; hence, he overvalued riches ;" " So, if youth be trifled 
away," &c. " Again, we must have food and clothing ;" " Finally, let us 
conclude." 

The foregoing rules and examples are sufficient, it is pre- 
sumed, to suggest to the learner, in all ordinary instances, the 
proper place for inserting the comma; but in applying these 
rules, great regard must be paid to the length and meaning of the 
clauses, and the proportion which they bear to one another. 

SEMICOLOIV. 

The semicolon is used for dividing a compound sentence into 
two or more parts, not so closely connected as those which are 
separated by a comma, nor yet so little dependant on each other, 
as those which are distinguished by a colon. 

RULE 1. When the preceding member of the sentence does 
not of itself give complete sense, but depends on the following 
clause, and sometimes when the sense of that member would 

complete without the concluding one, the semicolon is used ; 

as in the following examples : " As the desire of approbation, 

when it works according to reason, improves the amiable part 

of our species ; so, nothing is more destructive to them, when 

it is governed by vanity and folly ;" " The w r ise man is happy, 

when he gains his own approbation ; the fool, when he gains 

the applause of those around him ;" " Straws swim upon the 

surface ; but pearls lie at the bottom." 

• 
Exercises. The path of truth is a plain and safe path that of falsehood a 
perplexing maze. Heaven is the region of gentleness and friendship hell of 
fierceness and animosity. As there is a worldly happiness which God per- 
ceives to be no other than disguised misery as there are worldly honours 
which in his estimation are reproach so there is a worldly wisdom which in 
his sight is foolishness. 

But all subsists by elemental strife 
And passions are the elements of life. 

RULE 2. When an example is introduced to illustrate a rule 
or proposition, the semicolon may be used before the conjunc- 
tion as ; as in the following instance : Prepositions govern the 
objective case : as. " She gave the book to him." 



216 PUNCTUATION. 

Note. In instances like the foregoing, many respectable punctuitts employ 
the colon, instead of the semicolon. 

COLON. 

The Colon is used to divide a sentence into two or more parts 
less connected than those which are separated by a semicolon 
but not so independent as separate, distinct sentences. 

RULE 1. When a member of a sentence is complete in itself, 
but followed by some supplemental remark, or further illustra- 
tion of the subject, the colon may be properly employed ; as, 
" Nature felt her inability to extricate herself from the conse- 
quences of guilt : the gospel revealed the plan of divine interpo- 
sition and aid." " Great works are performed, not by strength 
but by perseverance : yonder palace was raised by single stones 
yet you see its height and spaciousness." 

Exercises, The three great enemies to tranquillity are vice superstition 
and idleness vice which poisons and disturbs the mind with bad passions 
superstition which fills it with imaginary terrours idleness which loads it 
with tediousness and disgust. 

When we look forward into the year which is beginning what do we be- 
hold there ? AH my brethren is a blank to our view a dark unknown presents 
itself. 

RULE 2. When a semicolon has preceded, or more than 
one, and a still greater pause is necessary, in order to mark the 
connecting or concluding sentiment, the colon should be applied ; 
as, u A divine legislator, uttering his voice from heaven ; an 
almighty governour, stretching forth his arm to punish or reward ; 
informing us of perpetual rest prepared for the righteous here- 
after, and of indignation and wrath awaiting the wicked : these 
are the considerations which overawe the world, which support 
integrity, and check guilt." 

PERIOD* 
When a sentence is complete, and so independent as not to be 
connected with the one which follows it, a period should be in- 
serted at its close ; as, "Fear God." " Honour the patriot." 
" Respect virtue." 

In the use of many of the pauses, there is a diversity of prac- 
tice among our best writers and grammarians. Compound 
sentences connected by conjunctions,, are sometimes divided by 
the period ; as, "Recreations, though they may be of an inno- 
cent kind, require steady government to keep them within a due 
and limited province. But such as are of an irregular*and 
vicious nature, are not to be governed, but to be banished from 
every well-regulated mind." 

The period should follow every abbreviated word ; as, " A* 
D N. B. U. S. Va. Md. Viz. Col. Mr." 



TUNCTUATIOK. 217 

DASH. 

The Dash, though often used improperly by hasty and inco- 
herent writers, may be introduced with propriety, where the 
sentence breaks off abruptly ; where a significant pause is re- 
quired ; or where there is an unexpected turn in the sentiment : 
as, " If thou art he, so much respected once — but, oh ! how 
fallen ! how degraded !" " If acting conformably to the will of 
our Creator ;— if promoting the welfare of mankind around us ; 
— if securing our own happiness ; — are objects of the highest 
moment : then we are loudly called upon to cultivate and ex- 
tend the great interests of religion and virtue." 

A dash following a stop, denotes that the pause is to be greater 
than if the stop were alone ; and when used by itself, requires 
a pause of such length as the sense only can determine. 

" Here lies the great — False marble, where ? 
" Nothing but sordid dust lies here." 

INTERROGATORY POI1VT. 

The note of interrogation is used at the end of an interroga- 
tive sentence ; as, " Who adorned the heavens with such ex- 
quisite beauty .?" 

Note. The interrogative point should not be employed in cases where it 
is only said, that a question has been asked ; as, " The Cyprians asked me, 
why I wept." 

EXCLAMATORY POINT. 

The note of exclamation is applied to expressions of sudden 
emotion, surprise, joy, grief, &c. and sometimes to invocations 
and addresses ; as, " How much vanity in the pursuits of men !" 
" What is more amiable than virtue !" u My friend ! this con- 
duct amazes me !" " Hear me, Lord ! for thy loving kindness 
is great !" 

PARENTHESIS. 

A parenthesis is a clause containing some useful remark, 
which may be omitted without injuring the grammatical con- 
struction ; as, " To gain a posthumous reputation, is to save a 
few letters (for what is a name besides ?) from oblivion." 

" Know then this truth, (enough for man to know,) 
" Virtue alone is happiness below." 

Note. The parenthesis generally denotes a moderate depression of the 
voice ; and, as the parenthetical marks do not supply the place of a point, 
the clause should be accompanied with every stop which. the sense would 
require, if the parenthetical characters were not used. It ought to termi- 
nate with the same kind of point which the member has that precedes it ; as, 
" He loves nobly, (I speak of friendship,) who is not jeaJous when he hcifl 
partners of love." 

19 



213 VERSIFICATION. 

" Or why so long (in life if long can be) 
" Lent Heav'n a parent to the poor and me?" 
Parentheses, however, containing interrogations or exclamations, form an 
exception to this rule ; as, "If I grant his request, (and who could reluse 
it ?) I shall secure his esteem and attachment. 

APOSTROPHE AND QUOTATION. 
The apostrophe is used to abbreviate a word, and also to 
mark the possessive case of a noun ; as, " His, for it is ; tho\ 
for though ; o'er, for over ;" " A man's poverty." 

A Quotation marks a sentence taken in the author's own 
language ; as, " The proper study of mankind is man." 

When an author represents a person as speaking, the lan- 
guage of that person should be designated by a quotation ; as, 
At my coming in, he said, " You and the physician are come 
too late." A quotation contained within another, should be dis- 
tinguished by two single commas ; as, " Always remember this 
ancient maxim : c Know thyself.' " 

DIRECTIONS FOR USING CAPITAL LETTERS. 
It is proper to begin with a capital, 

1. The first word of ovory sentence. 

2. Proper names, the appellations of the Deity, &c; as, 
"James, Cincinnati, the Andes, Huron ;" " God, Jehovah, the 
Almighty, the Supreme Being, Providence, the Holy Spirit." 

3. Adjectives derived from proper names, the titles of books, 
nouns which are used as the subject of discourse, the pronoun 
I and the interjection O, and every line in poetry ; as, " Ameri- 
can, Grecian, English, French ; Irv lug's Sketch Book, Perci- 
val's Poems ; I write ; Hear, O earth !- M 



APPENDIX. 



VERSIFICATION. 

Poetry is the language of passion, or of enlivened imagination. 

Versification, in English, is the harmonious arrangement 
of a particular number and variety of accented and unaccented 
syllables, according to particular laws. 

Rhyme is the correspondence of the sound of the last sylla- 
ble in one line, to the sound of the last syllable in another ; as, 
" O'er the glad waters of the dark-blue sea, 
" Our thoughts as boundless and our souis as free." 

Blank Yerse consists in poetical thoughts expressed in reg- 
ular numbers, but without the correspondence of sound at the 
end of the lines which constitutes rhyme. 

Poetical Feet consist in a particular arrangement and 
connexion of a number of accented and unaccented syllables. 



RHETORICK. 210 

They are called feet, because it is by their aid that the voice, as 
it were, steps along through the verse in a measured pace. 

All poetical feet consist either of two, or of three syllables ; and are 
reducible to eight kinds ; four of two syllables, and four of three, as follows : 

Dissyllable. Trisyllable. 

A Trochee - ^ A Dactyle - u v 

An Iambus ^ — An Amphibrach u — u 

A Spondee An Anapaest \/ v/ - 

A Pyrrhick w v A Tribrach u \j v 

A Trochee has the first syllable accented, and the last unac- 
cented ; as, Hateful, pettish : 

Restless mortals toil for nought. 
An Iambus has the first syllable unaccented, and the last ac« 
cented ; as, Betray, consist : 

The seas shall waste, the skies m smoke decay. 
A Dactyle has the first syllable accented, and the two latter 
unaccented ; as, Labourer, possible : 

From the low pleasures of this fallen nature. 
An Anapaest has the first two syllables unaccented, and the 
last accented ; as, Contravene, acquiesce : 

At the close of the day when the hamlet Is still. 
A Spondee ; as, The pale moon : a Pyrrhick ; as, on the tall 
tree t an Amphibrach ; as, Del^ ful : a Tribrach ; as, Nu- 
merable. 



RHETORICK. 

Grammar instructs us how to express our thoughts correctly: 
Rhetorick teaches us to express them with force and ele- 
gance. 

The former is generally confined to the correct application of words in 
constructing single sentences* The latter treats of the proper choice of 
words, of the happiest method of constructing sentences, of their most advan- 
tageous arrangement in forming a discourse, and of the various kinds and 
qualities of composition. The principles of rhetorick are principally based 
on those unfolded and illustrated in the science of grammar. Hence, an ac- 
quaintance with the latter, and, indeed, with the liberal arts is a prerequi- 
site to the study of rhetorick and belles-lettres. 

COMPOSITION. 

It may be laid down as a maxim of eternal truth, that good 
sense is the foundation of all good writing. One who under- 
stands a subject well, will scarcely write ill upon it. 

Rhetorick, or the art of persuasion, requires in a writer, the union of good 
sense, and a lively and chaste imagination. It is, then, her province to teach 
him to embellish his thoughts with elegant and appropriate language, vivid 
imagery, and an agreeable variety of expression. It ought to be his aim, 
u To mark the point where sense and dulness meet." 



220 RHETORICS. 

STYLE.— PERSPICUITY AND PRECISION. 

Style is the peculiar manner in which we express our con- 
ceptions by means of language. It is a picture of the ideas 
which rise in our minds, and of the order in which they are pro- 
duced. 

The qualities of a good style, may be ranked under two heads, 
perspicuity and ornament 

Perspicuity, which is considered the fundamental quality 
of a good style, claims attention, first, to single words and phra- 
ses ; and, secondly, to the construction of sentences. When 
considered with respect to words and phrases, it requires these 
three qualities, purity, propriety, and precision. 

Purity of language consists in the use of such words and such 
constructions as belong to the language which we speak, in op- 
position to words and phrases belonging to other languages, 01 
which are obsolete or new-coined, or employed without proper 
authority. 

Propriety is the choice of those words which the best usage 
has appropriated to the ideas which we intend to express by 
them. It implies their correct and judicious application, in op 
position to low expressions, and to words and phrases which 
would be less significant of the ideas which we wish to convey. 
It is the union of purity and propriety, which renders style grace- 
ful and perspicuous. 

Precision, from preecidere, to cut off, signifies retrenching all 
superfluities, and pruning the expression in such a manner as to 
exhibit neither more nor less than an exact copy of the ideas 
intended to be conveyed. 

STRUCTURE OF SENTENCES. 

A proper construction of sentences is of so great importance 
in every species of composition, that we cannot be too strict or 
minute in our attention to it. 

Elegance of style requires us generally to avoid many short or long sen- 
tences in succession ; a monotonous correspondence of one member to ano- 
ther ; and the commencing of a piece, section, or paragraph, with a long 
sentence. 

- The qualities most essential to a perfect sentence, are Unity, 
Clearness, Strength, and Harmony. 

Unity is an indispensable property of a correct sentence. A 
sentence implies an arrangement of words in which only one pro- 
position is expressed. It may, indeed, consist of parts ; but 
these parts ought to be so closely bound together, as to make 
on the mind the impression, not of many objects, but of only 
one. In order to preserve this unity, the following rules may be 
useful. 

1. In the course of the sentence, the scene should be changed as Utile as possU 



STRUCTURE OF SENTENCES. 221 

bit. In every sentence there is some leading or governing word, which, if 
possible, ought to be continued so from the beginning to the end of it. The 
following sentence is not constructed according to this rule : " After we 
came to anchor, they put me on shore, where I was saluted by all my friends, 
who received me with the greatest kindness." In this sentence, though the 
objects are sufficiently connected, yet, by shifting so frequently the place and 
the person, the vessel, the shore, we, they, I, and who, they appear in so dis- 
united a view, that the mind is led to wander for the sense. The sentence 
is restored to its proper unity by constructing it thus : " Having come to 
anchor, I was put on shore, where I was saluted by all my friends, who 
received me With the greatest kindness." 

2. Never crowd into one sentence things which have so little connexion, that 
they would bear to be divided into two or more sentences. The violation of this 
rule produces so unfavourable an effect, that it is safer to err rather by too 
many short sentences, than by one that is overloaded and confused. 

3. Avoid all unnecessary parentheses. 

Clearness. Ambiguity, which is opposed to clearness, may 
arise from a bad choice, or a bad arrangement of words. 

A leading rule in the arrangement of sentences, is, that those 
words or members most nearly related, should be placed in the sen- 
tence as near to each other as possible, so as thereby to make their 
mutual relation clearly appear. This rule ought to be observed, 

1. In the position of adverbs. " By greatness," says Mr. Addison, " I da 
not only mean the bulk of any single object, but the largeness of a whole 
view." The improper situation of the adverb only, in this sentence, renders 
it a limitation of the verb mean, whereas the author intended to have it qual- 
ify the phrase, a single object ; thus, " By greatness, I do not mean the 
bulk of any single object only, but the largeness of a whole view." 

2. In the position of phrases and members. " Are these designs which any 
man who is born a Briton, in any circumstances, in any situation, ought to 
be ashamed or afraid to avow ?" Corrected : "Are these designs which any 
man who is born a Briton, ought to be ashamed or afraid, in any circumstan- 
ces, in any situation, to avow ?" 

3. hi the position of pronouns. The reference of a pronoun to its noun, 
should always be so clear that we cannot possibly mistake it : otherwise the 
noun ought to be repeated. " It is folly to pretend to arm ourselves against 
the accidents of life, by heaping up treasures, which nothing can protect us 
against but the good providence of our Heavenly Father." Which, in this 
sentence, grammatically refers to treasures ; and this would convert the 
whole period into nonsense. The sentence should have been thus construc- 
ted, "It is folly to pretend, by heaping up treasures, to arm ourselves 
against the accidents of life, against which nothing can protect us but the 
good providence of our Heavenly Father." 

Strength. By the strength of a sentence is meant such an 
arrangement of its several words and members, as exhibits the 
sense to the best advantage, and gives every word and member 
its due weight and force. 

1. The first rule for p-omoting the strength of a sentence, is, to take from 
it all redundant words and members. Whatever can be easily supplied in the 
mind, should generally be omitted ; thus, "Content with derserving a triumph, 
he refused the honour of it," is better than to say, " Being content with de- 
serving a triumph," &c. " They returned back again to the same city from 
whence they came forth." If we expunge from this short sentence jive 
words which are mere expletives, it will be much more neat and forcible ; 
thus, " Thcv returned to the city whence they came." But we should be 

19* 



222 RHETORICK, 

cautious of pruning so closely as to give a hardness and dryness to the style. 
Some leaves must be left to shelter and adorn the fruit. 

2. Particular attention to the use of copulatives, relatives, and all the particles 
employed for transition and connexion, is required. In compositions of an 
elevated character, the relative should generally be inserted. An Injudicious 
repetition of and enfeebles style ; but when enumerating objects which we 
wish to have appear as distinct from each other as possible, it may be repeat- 
ed with peculiar advantage ; thus, " Such a man may fall a victim to pow- 
er ; but truth, and reason, and liberty, would fall with him." 

3. Dispose of the capital word or words in that part of the sentence in which 
they will make the most striking impression. 

4. Cause the members of a sentence to go on rising in their importance one 
above another. In a sentence of two members, the longer should generally 
be the concluding one. 

5. Avoid concluding a sentence ivith an adverb, a preposition, or any inconsid' 
erable word, unless it be emphatical. 

6. Where two things are compared or contrasted with each other, a resemblance 
in the language and construction should be observed. 



FIGURES OF SPEECH. 

Figures of Speech may be described as that language which 
is prompted either by the imagination, or by the passions. They 
generally imply some departure from simplicity of expression j 
and exhibit ideas in a manner more vivid and impressive, than 
could be done by plain language. Figures have been common- 
ly divided into two great classes ; Figures of Wotxls, and Fig- 
ures of Thought 

Figures of Words are called Tropes, and consist in a word's 

being employed to signify something that is different from its 

onginal meaning ; so that by altering the word, we destroy the 

figure. 

When we say of a person, that he has a fine taste in wines, the word taste 
is used in its common, literal sense ; but when we say, he has a fine taste 
for painting, poetry, or musick, we use the word figuratively. "A good man 
enjoys comfort in the midst of adversity," is simple language; but when it 
is said, " To the upright there ariseth light in darkness" the same sentiment 
is expressed in a figurative style, light is put in the place of comfort, and 
darkness is used to suggest the idea of adversity. 

The following are the most important figures : 

1. A Metaphor is founded on the resemblance which one 

object bears to another ; or, it is a comparison in an abridged 

form. 

When I say of some great minister, " That he upholds the state like a 
pillar which supports the weight of a whole edifice," I fairly make a compar- 
ison ; but when I say of such a minister, " That he is the pillar of state," the 
word pillar becomes a metaphor. In the latter construction, the compari- 
son between the minister and a pillar, is made in the mind j but it is ex- 
pressed without any of the words that denote comparison. 



FIGURES OF SPEECH. 223 

Metaphors abound in all writings. In the scriptures they may be found 
in vast variety. Thus, our blessed Lord is called a vine, a lamb, a lion, &c. ; 
and men, according to their different dispositions, are styled wolves, sheep, 
dogs, serpents, vipers, &c. 

Washington Irving, in speaking of the degraded state of the American 
Aborigines who linger on the borders of the "white settlements," employs 
the following beautiful metaphor : " The proud pillar of their independence 
has been shaken down, and the whole moral fabrick lies in ruins." 

2. An Allegory may be regarded as a metaphor continued ; 
or, it is several metaphors so connected together in sense, as 
frequently to form a kind of parable or fable. It differs from a 
single metaphor, in the same manner that a cluster on the vine 
differs from a single grape. 

The following is a fine example of an allegory, taken from the 60th psalm ; 
wherein the people of Israel are represented under the image of a vine : 
" Thou hast brought a vine out of Egypt : thou hast cast out the heathen 
and planted it. Thou preparedst room before it ; and didst cause it to take 
deep root, and it filled the land. The hills were covered with the shadow of 
it ; and the boughs thereof were like the goodly cedars. She sent out her 
boughs into the sea, and her branches into the river." 

3. A Simile or Comparison is when the resemblance be- 
tween two objects, whether real or imaginary, is expressed in 
form. 

Thus, we use a simile, when we say, "The actions of princes are like 
those great rivers, the course of which every one beholds, but their springs 
have been seen by few." " As the mountains are round about Jerusalem, 
so the Lord is round about his people." " The musick of Caryl was like the 
memory of joys that are past, pleasant and mournful to the soul." " Our 
Indians are like those wild plants which thrive best in the shade, but which 
wither when exposed to the influence of the sun." 

" The Assyrian came down, like the wolf on the fold, 
And his cohorts were gleaming with purple and gold ; 
And the sheen of their spears was like stars on the sea, 
When the blue wave rolls nightly on deep Galilee." 

4. A Metonymy is where the causers put for the effect, or 
the effect for the cause ; the container for the thing contained ; 
or the sign for the thing signified. 

When we say, " They read Milton," the cause is put for the effect, mean- 
ing " Milton's works." " Gray hairs should be respected ;" here the effect 
is put for the cause ; meaning by " gray hairs," old age, which produces 
gray hairs. In the phrase, " The kettle boils," the container is su^^uted 
for the thing contained. " He addressed the chair;" that is, tb* person in 
the chair. 

5. A Synecdoche or Comprehension. When the whole is 
put for a part, or a part for the whole ; a geni^ for a species, or 
a species for a genus ; in general, when a»y thing less, or any 
thing more, is put for the precise object meant, the figure is call- 
ed a Synecdoche. 

Thus, " A fleet of twenty sail, instead of, ships." " The horse is a noble 
animal ;" " The dog is a faithful creature :" here an individual is put for the 
species. We sometimes use the " head" for the person, and the " waves" 
for the sea. In like manner, an attribute may be put for a subject j as, 
" Youth" for the young, the " deep" for the sea. 



£24 RHETOIUCK. 

6. Personification or Prosopopoeia is that figure by which 
we attribute life and action to inanimate objects. When we say, 
" the ground thirsts for rain," or, " the earth smiles with plenty ;" 
when we speak of" ambition's being restless" or, " a disease's 
being deceitful ;" such expressions show the facility, with which 
the mind can accommodate the properties of living creatures to 
things that are inanimate. 

The following are fine examples of this figure : 
' Cheer'd with the grateful smell, old Oeean smiles ;" 
" The wilderness and the solitary place «hall be glad for them j and th 
desert shall rejoice and blossom as the rose." 

7. An Apostrophe is an address to some person, either ab 

sent or dead, as if he were present and listening to us. The ad 

dress is frequently made to a personified object ; as, " Death is 

swallowed up in victory. O death! where is thy sting? O 

grave ! where is thy victory ?" 

" Weep on the rocks of roaring winds, maid of Inistore ; bend thy fail 
head over the waves, thou fairer than the ghost of the hills, when it moves 
in a sun-beam at noon over the silence of Morven." 

8. Antithesis. Comparison is founded on the resemblance, 
antithesis, on the contrast or opposition, of two objects. 

Example. " If you wish to enrich a person, study not to increase his 
stores, but to diminish his desires. 19 

9. Hyperbole or Exaggeration consists in magnifying an 
object beyond its natural bounds. " As swift as the wind ; ag 
white as the snow ; as slow as a snail ;" and the like, are ex- 
travagant hyperboles. 

" I saw their chief, tall as a rock of ice ; his spear, the blasted fir ; his 
shield, the rising moon ; he sat on the shore, like a cloud of mist on the 
hills." 

10. Vision is produced, when, in relating something that is 
past, we use the present tense, and describe it as actually pass- 
ing before our eyes. 

11. Interrogation. The literal use of an interrogation, is to 
ask a question ; but when men are strongly moved, whatever 
they would affirm or deny with great earnestness, they naturally 
put in the form of a question. 

Thus Balaam expressed himself to Balak : " The I<ord is not man, that 
he should lie, nor the son of man, that he should repent. Hath he said it ? 
and shall he not do it ? Hath he spoken it ? and shall he not make it 
good ?" " Hast thou an arm like God ? or canst thou thunder with a voice 
like him ? M 

12. Exclamations are the effect of strong emotions, such as 
surprise, admiration, joy, grief, and the like. 

" O that I had in the wilderness a lodging place of way-faring men !" "0 
that I had wings like a dove ! for then would 1 fly away, and be at rest I* 



KEY TO THE EXERCISES. 225 

13. Irony is expressing ourselves in a manner contrary to 
our thoughts ; not with a view to deceive, but to add force to 
our remarks. We can reprove one for his negligence, by say- 
ing, "You have taken great care, indeed." 

The prophet Elijah adopted this figure, when he challenged the priests ot 
Baal to prove the truth of their deity. u He mocked them, and said, Cry 
aloud, for he is a god : either he is talking, or he is pursuing, or he is on a 
journey, or, peradventure, he sleepeth, and must be waked." 

14. Amplification or Climax consists in heightening ail the 
circumstances of an object or action, which we desire to place 
in a strong light. 

Ciceno gives a lively instance of this figure, when he says, " It is a crime 
to put a Roman citizen in bonds : it is the height of guilt to scourge him ; 
little less than parricide to put him to death : what name, then, shall I give 
to the act of crucifying him?" 



KEY* 

Corrections of the False Syntax arranged under the Rules and 

Notes. • 

Rule 4. Frequent commission of sin hardens men in it. Great pains 
have been taken, &c. — is seldom found. The sincere are, &c. — is happy. 
What avail, &c. — Disappointments sink — the renewal of hope gives, &c. — is 
without limit, has been conferred upon us. — Thou canst not heal — but thou 
mayst do, &c. — consists the happiness, &c. — Who touchedst, or didst touch 
Isaiah's hallowed lips with fire. 

Note 1. And wilt thou never be to Heaven resigned ? — And who had great 
abilities, &c. 

Note 2. Are peace and honour. — was controversy. 

Rule 7. Them that you visited. — him that was mentioned. — he who 
preached repentance, &c. — they who died. — he who succeeded. 

Rule 8. Time and tide wait, &c. — remove mountains. — are both uncer- 
tain. — dwell with, &c. — affect the mind, &c. — What signify the counsel and 
care, &c. — are now perished. — AVhy are whiteness and coldness, &c. — bind 
them continually, &c. — render their possessor, &c. — There are errour an<^ 
discrepance — which show, &c. 

Rule 9. Is the same in idea. — is in the porphyry. — is remarkable. ^ c - — 
which moves merely as it is moved. — affects us, &c. — Man's hapr /ness or 
misery is, in a great measure &c. — for it may be, &c. — was blarr^ ,vvort hy- 

Rule 10. The nation is powerful. — The fleet was seen, &r.— The church 
has, &c. — is, or ought to be, the object, &c. — it is feeble. 

Rule 11. My people do &c— The multitude eagerly pursue pleasure as 
their, Sac— were divided in their sentiments, and they * ave referred, &c. — The 
people rejoice — give them sorrow. 

Rule 1 2. Homer's works are &c. — Asa's heart. James HarVs book. 

Note 1. It was the men, women, and children's lot, &c. or, It xoas the lot of 
the men, women, and children. — Peter, John, and Andrew's, &c. 

Note 2. This is Campbell the poet's production ; or, The production of 
Campbell, fyc. — The silk was purchased at Brown's the mercer and haber- 
dasher. 

Note 4. The pupil's composing, &c. — ride's being observed. — of the presi 
denVs neglecting to lay it before the council. 



226 KEY TO THE EXERCISES. 

Rule 13. Of his audience. — put it on Jacob, — sprinkle them — and they 
shall, &c— of his reputation. 

Note.^ You were blamed ; you icere worthy. — where were you ? — how far 
w.ere you ? 

Rule 14. Who hast been, &c— who is the sixth that has lost his life by 
this means. 

Who all my sense confinedst ; or, didst confine. 

Note. And who broughtest him forth out of Ur. 

Rule 15. Who shall be sent, &c. — This is the man wlw, &c. 

Rule 16. They to whom much is given, &c. — with whom you associate, &c. 
— whom I greatly respect, &c. — whom we ought to love, and to whom, fyc. — 
They xohom conscience, fyc. — With whom did you walk 1—Whom did you 
see ? — To whom did you give the book ? 

Rule 17. Who gave John those books ? We. — him who lives in Pearl- 
street — My brother and he. — She and /. 

Rule 18: Note 2. Thirty tuns. — twenty feet — one hundred fathoms. 

Note 6. He bought a pair of new shoes — piece of elegant furniture. — pair 
of fine horses — tract of poor !and. 

Note 7. Are still more difficult to be comprehended. — most doubtful, or pre* 
carious way, &c. — This model comes nearer perfection than any I, &c. 

Rule 19: Note. That sort. — these two hours. — This kind, &c. — He saw 
one person, or more than one, enter the garden. 

Note 2. Better than himself. — is so small. — his station may be, is bound 
by the laws. 

Note 3. On each side, &c. — took each his censer. 

Rule 20. Whom did they, &c.r*-They whom opulence, — whom luxury, &e* 
— Him and them we know, &c. — Her that is negligent, &c. — my brothei 
and me, &c. — Whom did they send, &c. — Them whom he, &c» 

Role 21. It is /.—If I were Ac— it is he, indeed.— Whom do you, &c- 
Who do men say, &c. — and who say ye, &c. — whom do you imagine it t* 
have been? — it was /; but you knew that it was he. 

Rule 25. Bid him come. — ^durst not do it. — Hear him read, fyc. — makes us 
approve and reject, &c. — better to live — than to outlive, &c. — to wrestle. 

Rule 26 : Note. — The taking of pains : or, without taking pains, &c.— 
The changing of times, — the removing and setting up o/kings. 

Rule 28 : Note 3. He did me — I had written — he came home. — befallen 
my cousin — he would have gone. — already men.— is begun. — is spoken. — 
would have written — had they written, $c. 

Rule 29 : Note 1. It cannot, therefore, be, &c. — he was not often pleas- 
in sr. — si.ould never be separated. — We may live happily, fyc. 
\Rule 30: Note. I don't know *»* thing ; or, I know nothing, &c— I did 
nol^ee anybody ; or, I saw .wbody, &c. — Nothing ever affects her. — and 
take no shape or semblance, &c. — There can be nothing, &c. — Neither pre- 
cept nor discipline is so forcible as example. 

Rule 31. For himself. — among themselves. — with whom he is, Sec— With 
xohom did, &c>— From whom did you receive instruction ? 

Rule 33. My btother and he, &c. — You and J, $c. He and I — John and 
he, &c. — Between you and me, &c, 

Rule 34. And entreM me, &c. — and acting differently, &c. 

Note 1. But he may return — but he will write no more. 

Note 2. Unless it rain. — K he acquire riches, fyc. 

Rule 35. Than /.—as well as he, than they.— but Ac— but he and /.—but 
them who had gone astray. 

Promiscuous Examples. — Him who is from eternity, #*c— depends all the 
happiness, — which exists, fyc. — the enemies whom, #*c. — Is it / or he whom 
you requested ? — Though great have been, — sincerely acknowledge.— There 
was, in the metropolis. — exercising our memories. — was consumed. — Afflu- 
ence may give — but it will not.— of this world often choke. — Them thathoo- 



KEY TO THE EXERCISES. 227 

our ;— and they that despise.— I intended to call last week.— the fields look 
fresh and gay .—very neatl y, finely woven paper.— where I saw Gen. Andrew 
Jackson, him who. — Take the first two, — last three.— thirty feet high. — a 
union, — a hypothesis. — I have seen him to whom you wrote, he would have 
come back, or returned.— understands the nature, — he reject*.— If thou study, 
— thou wilt become. — is not properly attended to. — He knew. — therefore, to 
have done it. — than the title.— very independently.— duty to do. — my friend's 
entering. — is the best specimen, or it comes nearer perfection than any, &c. — 
blow them, will go, &c. — Each of those two authors has his merit. — Reason's 
whole,— lie \n.— strikes the mind,— than if the parts had been adjusted,— with 
perfect symmetry. 

Satire does not carry in it. — composes the triangle. — persons' opportunities 
were ever. — It has been reported. — should never be. — situation in which. — is 
thoroughly versed in his.— are the soul,— follows little.— An army presents. 
• — are the duties of a christian. — happier than he. — always have inclined, and 
which alw-ays will incline him to offend. — which require great. — Them that 
honour me, will I. — has opinions peculiar to itself. — that it may be said he 
attained monarchical. — hast permitted, — wilt deliver. — was formerly propa- 
gated. — the measure is, — unworthy your.— were faithless.— After I had visited. 
— nor shall /, consent. — Yesterday I intended to walk out, but was. — make 
or are thirteen, — leave three. — If he go, — make the eighth tone that he will 
have visited. — is nobler. — was possessed, or that ever can be. — one great 
edifice,*— smaller ones. — honesty is. — it to be. — will follow me, — I shall dwell. 
— is gone astray. — he could not have done.— feeling a propensity. 



PUNCTUATION. 

COMMA. 

Corrections of the Exercises in Punctuation. 

RULE 1. Idleness is the great fomenter of all corruptions in the human 
heart. The friend of order has made half his way to virtue. All finery is a 
sign of littleness. 

RULE 2. The indulgence of a harsh dispositien, is the introduction to 
future misery. To be totally indifferent to praise or censure, is a real defect 
in character. The intermixture of evil in human society, serves to exercise' 
the suffering graces and virtues of the good. 

RULE 3. Charity, like the sun, brightens all its objects. Gentleness is* 
in truth, the great avenue to mutual enjoyment. You, too, have your fil- 
ings. Humility and knowledge, with poor apparel, excel pride and '*gnor 
ance, under co3tly attire. The best men often experience disappointments. 
Advice should be seasonably administered. No assumed behaviour can 
always hide the real character. 

RULE 4. Lord, thou hast been our dwelling place iv a U generations 
Continue, my dear child, to make virtue thy chief stu/ty- Canst thou ex- 
pect, thou betrayer of innocence, to escape the hand jf vengeance ? Death, 
the king cf terrours, chose a prime minister. ¥lop c J^ e balm of life, sooths 
us under everv misfortune. Confucius, the %r.e*t Chinese philosopher, was 
eminently good, as well as wise. The patria' cn Joseph is an illustrious ex- 
ample of true piety. 

■ RULE 5. Peace of mind being secured we may smile at misfortune. To 
enjoy present pleasure, he sacrificed ^ future ease and reputation. His 
talents, formed for great enterpriser could not fail of rendering liim conspic- 
uous. The path of piety and virtue, pursued with a firm and constant 
spirit, will assuredly lead to happiness. All mankind compose one family, 
assembled under the eye of one common Father. 






228 KEY TO THE EXERCISES. 

RULE 6. We have no reason to complain of the lot of man, nor of the 
mutability of the world. Sensuality contaminates the body, depresses the 
understanding, deadens the moral feelings of the heart, and degrades man 
from^his rank in creation. 

Self-conceit, presumption, and obstinacy, blast the prospect of many a 
youth. He is alternately supported by his father, his uncle, and his elder 
brother. The man of virtue and honour, will be trusted, relied upon, and 
esteemed. Conscious guilt renders one mean-spirited, timorous, and base. 
An upright mind will never be at a loss to discern what is just and true, 
lovely, honest, and of good report. Habits of reading, writing, and think- 
ing, are the indispensable qualifications of a good student. The great busi- 
ness of life is, to be employed in doing justly, loving mercy, and walking 
humbly with our God. To live soberly, righteously, and piously, compre- 
hends the whole of our duty. 

In our health, life, possessions, connexions, pleasures, there are causes of 
decay imperceptibly working. Deliberate slowly, execute promptly. An 
idle, trifling society, is near akin to such as is corrupting. This unhappy 
person had been seriously, affectionately admonished, but in vain. 

RULE 7. How much better it is to get wisdom than gold. The friend- 
ships of the world can exist no longer than interest cements them. Eat 
what is set before you. They who excite envy, will easily incur censure. 
A man who is of a detracting spirit, will misconstrue the most innocent 
words that can be put together. Many of the evils which occasion our com- 
plaints of the world, are wholly imaginary. 

The gentle mind is like the smooth stream, which reflects every object in 
its just proportion, and in its fairest colours. In that unaffected civility which 
springs from a gentle mind, there is an incomparable charm. The Lord, 
whom I serve, is eternal. This is the man we saw yesterday. 

RULE 8. Idleness brings forward and nourishes many bad passions. 
True friendship will, at all times, avoid a rough or careless behaviour. Health 
and peace, a moderate fortune, and afew friends, sum up all the undoubted 
articles of temporal felicity. Truth is fair and artless, simple and sincere, uni- 
form and consistent. Intemperance destroys the strength of our bodies, 
and the vigour of our minds. 

RULE 9. As a companion, he was severe and satirical ; as a friend, cap- 
tious and dangerous. If the spring put forth no blossoms, in summer there 
will be no beauty, and in autumn, no fruit. So, if youth be trifled away 
without improvement, manhood will be contemptible, and old age, miserable. 

RULE 10. They believed he was dead. He did not know that I was the 
man. I knew she was still alive. The greatest misery is, to be condemned 
by our own hearts. The greatest misery that we can endure, is, to be con- 
demediay our own hearts. 

SEMICOLON. 

RULE 1. T^e path ' of truth is a plain and safe path ; that of falsehood 
is a perplexing rmze. Heaven is the region of gentleness and friendship; 
hell, of fierceness and animosity. As there is a worldly happiness, which 
God perceives to be no other than disguised misery ; as there are worldly 
honours, which, in his estimation, are a reproach; so, there is a worldly 
wisdom, which, in his sight, is foolishness. 

But all subsists by elemental strife ; 

And passions are the elements of life. 

colon. 

RULE 1. The three great enemies to tranquillity, are vice, superstition, 
and idleness: vice, which poisons and disturbs the mind with bad passions ; 
superstition, which fills it with imaginary terrours ; idleness, which loads i% 
with tediousness and disgust. 






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